permitted to share equally with men in all those things which maintain life and contribute to its happiness. This equal distribution is, moreover, in accordance with that kind of natural equality between men and women which relates to the satisfaction of hunger, thirst, shelter, repose; for no one will venture to say that women require less food, less shelter, or less sleep than men.

The physical equality between the sexes and their equal natural wants greatly facilitate the distribution of produce in the communistic state.

*

In admitting both sexes to the study and training in arts and sciences, the communists presuppose intellectual equality between them. Adopting this equality, they also make woman responsible in the performance of her share in all the social duties encumbent upon all the members of the community.

In attributing inferiority of intellect and character to woman, Mr. Stephen, the astute lawyer, fall sinto a dilemma; for he must either acknowledge that women are intellectually and morally equal to men, and that both, as responsible beings, are amenable to the same rigour of the criminal law, which in cases of murder inflicts capital punishment on both; or that it is barbarous to hang a woman for the same crime for which a man forfeits his life, inasmuch as her intellect and force of character is inferior to that of man, and her responsibility less than his. To say with Mr. Stephen that "laws must from their nature act indiscriminately and must treat those who are subject to them as equals," is but a very clumsy way of getting out of the difficulty.

* Susan Dimock, after studying the science of medicine for two years in America, completed her education at the University of Zürich, where she graduated in 1871. On her return to America she was appointed Resident Medical Officer to the Boston Hospital for Women and Children, and discharged its duties, as well as those of a daily increasing private practice, with great credit. As is common enough in America, she combined the practice of medicine with that of surgery, and within the last four years performed a considerable number of most important operations with great success. She was rapidly rising to the first rank in her profession, when she was prematurely lost in the shipwreck of the steamer Schiller, while on her way to Europe for six months' holiday.

In July, 1875, Miss Mary Edith Pechey was elected to the vacant post of House Surgeon to the Birmingham and Midland Hospital for Women.

CHAPTER XXII.-EQUALITY BETWEEN CONJUGAL PARTNERS.

NO writer is a better authority on this subject than Mr. Mill,

and the following passages extracted from his work on "The Subjection of Women," contain everything that can be said in favour of the equality between man and wife as conjugal partners.

The principle which regulates the existing social relations between the two sexes-the legal subordination of one sex to the other-is wrong in itself, and now one of the chief hindrances to human improvement; and it ought to be replaced by a principle of perfect equality, admitting no power or privilege on the one side, nor disability on the other."

"The moral regeneration of mankind will only really commence when the most fundamental of the social relations is placed under the rule of equal justice, and when human beings learn to cultivate their strongest sympathy with an equal in rights and cultivation.

"What is needed is that married life should be a school of sympathy in equality, of living together in love, without power on one side or obedience on the other.

Philosophy and religion, instead of keeping in check the subjugation of women, are generally suborned to defend it; and nothing controls it but that practical feeling of the equality of human beings, which is the theory of Christianity.

"We are told that St. Paul said, 'Wives, obey your husbands; but he also said, 'Slaves, obey your masters.' It was not St. Paul's business, nor was it consistent with his object, the propagation of Christianity, to incite anyone to rebellion against existing laws.

"As discussion has not brought out the true character of the subjugation of women, it is not felt to jar with modern civilization, any more than domestic slavery among the Greeks jarred with their notion of themselves as a free people.

"The inequality of rights between men and women has no other source than the law of the strongest.

"The subjection of women arose simply from the fact

that from the very earliest twilight of human society, every woman was found in a state of bondage to some man.”

Mr. Stephen meets Mr. Mill's views with two objections which, to a communist, seem extremely puerile. He thinks that "a woman who is no longer young, and who is the mother of children, would (under an equal relation between conjugal partners) be absolutely in the husband's power, and that in nine cases out of ten he would put an end to the marriage when it pleased him.” Then who shall provide for the children, and how shall the woman find a living and a new home? Communism apprehends no difficulty in such instances, for all women and children getting their support from the state, are entirely independent of their parents and husbands.

Mr. Stephen further says:-" If the parties to a contract of marriage are treated as equals, it is impossible to avoid the inference that marriage, like other partnerships, may be dissolved at pleasure."

That under a communistic regime, which supports both children and wives, voluntary dissolution may take place without injury to either, will allay Mr. Stephen's apprehensions concerning the consequences of that dissolution at pleasure which he thinks is implied in Mr. Mill's advocacy of the rights of women, and which he fancies is defended in certain passages towards the end of Mr. Mill's treatise "On Liberty."

CHAPTER XXIII.-EQUALITY IN THE DISTRIBUTION OF BURDENS AND ENJOYMENTS.

BABEUF

ABEUF and his associates saw in the community of goods. and of labour, that is to say, in the equal distribution of burdens and enjoyments, the only means of guaranteeing to each and every citizen the greatest possible happiness.

Equality in the distribution of burdens and enjoyments is carried out in three ways by the communistic state, and intends to realize :

1. The community of goods by an equal distribution of all

the means of subsistence, including nurture, clothing, bedding, lodging, means of locomotion.

2. The community of burdens consisting in an equal distribution of labour, occupations, and professions.

3. The community of enjoyments by the common and equal participation of all the members of the community in the pleasures and enjoyments of life.

Common Meals.-The institution of common meals has an historical precedent, for we read in Herodotus that the Spartans ate their food in common, and that their kings even took their meals at the public table. He further states that the distribution of meat was always confided to the most distinguished persons of the commonwealth. It is not unlikely that from this laudable Spartan example of the distribution of food by distinguished persons, the English custom is derived of assigning the carving of meat and distribution of food at meals to the master and mistress of the house.

Common Dwellings.—How an equality in the lodgings and habitations of the people is obtained in the communistic state has been amply described in the chapter treating of the Associated Home. Although these dwellings are provided with every necessary accommodation and convenience, the communistic state does not tie its citizens to one and the same set of apartments, dwelling houses, localities, or towns, but permits frequent dislocation, which will, moreover, be often required by the change of employment, calling all people by turns to the various seats of industry scattered all over the communistic territory. In this manner will be provided for all persons change of air, of place, and association, in order to spread everywhere health, pleasure, novelty, and enjoyment.

That a similar custom of dislocation actually exists in Utopia we learn from Sir Thomas More, who says:-"The inhabitants of the towns of Utopia shift their houses by lots at every ten years' end."

Equality in Dress.-On this kind of equality Babeuf makes some very judicious remarks, saying:-"Equality and simplicity in dress do not exclude elegance and propriety. There might be, for instance, different colours and forms to distinguish the different ages and occupations; and there is no reason why the citizen should not wear a different costume at the assemblies

and festivals from his ordinary one in the workshop. The girls, too, might be differently attired from the grownup women; and it might prove useful as well as pleasing that the youth, the adult, the old man, the magistrate, and the warrior should have each a peculiar and appropriate costume."

Equal Distribution of Burdens.-For the equal distribution of the means of subsistence the communistic state expects, in return, equal application and assiduity at work from all its citizens. If all are maintained on a footing of equality, all must work equally hard. The burdens of labour must be equally borne by all. Physical labour is to be compulsory to all, and attractive occupations are to be distributed by alternate allotment.

The benefits derived from labour in common are thus described by Babeuf :-" Citizens should do in common whatever is to be done. Common labour fosters in the heart of each worker the desire of obtaining the general approbation by punctuality in the discharge of his duty."

Mr. Sargant objects to the equal distribution of labour on the ground that it must lead to an inquisition not to be borne. He imagines" that a tailor, for instance, sitting by the side of his shopmate would count the stitches of his brother shopmate, watch his wandering looks, and harass him with a superintendence worse than the worst evils of competition." To this objection the above words of Babeuf are an able reply, and the reader will also recollect that the principle laid down in ch. ii., pp. 261-2, renders this supervision legitimate, as it is the only means by which an individual can defend his personal freedom being infringed upon; for as soon as he sees that another fellow worker is neglecting his duty, there arises in the mind of the industrious workman the apprehension that he is made a slave by being constrained to work in order to provide the means of subsistence for the idler. In the present state of competition, on the contrary, the industrious workman very often rejoices at the idleness of his shopmate; for political economy teaches him that with the increase of the number of idlers amongst the members of his own trade, the demand of labour from the industrious workman, and the rise of their wages, increase in direct ratio.