the most part, Europe, the western part of Asia, and the United States. It is characterized by the oval shape of the face, a considerable variety of color both of the skin and the hair, and mental superiority. It is called Caucasian, from the Caucasian Mountains, in the neighborhood of which this race was at first settled. Even at the present day it is said that the external characteristics of this race are better developed in that locality than any where else, the Georgians and Circassians being the handsomest people in the world. The negro, or Ethiopian variety, I need not describe. The Mongolian race, of which the Chinese are the largest family, is characterized by prominent broad cheek-bones, a flat square face, small oblique eyes, straight black hair, a scanty beard, and olive skin. The American variety has high cheek-bones, large and bold features, except the eyes, which are sunken deeply in the sockets, hair generally black and stiff, and a copper complexion. In the Malay race, inhabiting the isl ands south of Asia, in the Indian and Pacific Oceans, the complexion is brown, the hair is black and thick, the forehead is low and round, the nose is full and broad with wide nostrils, and the mouth is large.

40. So great is the difference between these varieties, especially the Caucasian and the Ethiopian, that some believe that they came originally from different pairs. But the Bible declares that they were all descended from one pair, and almost all physiologists consider this to be also proved by a candid examination of facts. The dif ferent races of man are not more distinct from each other than the varieties of dogs and other animals. It is a remarkable fact that animals which remain wild are not apt to have varieties, while in those which are domesticated by man different breeds or varieties arise. Thus lions and tigers remain always the same, but dogs, horses, etc., have many varieties. So it is with man. Under the various influences to which he is subjected in society, in different ages and localities, varieties are produced.

41. The races of men may also be subdivided into varieties. Each nation has characteristics which are sometimes very marked. Thus the English and the Irish can ordinarily be readily distinguished at a glance. The Jews also have always been remarkably distinct from other nations. Then, too, we occasionally see an individual family with such striking peculiarities descending from father to son that we may call it a variety.

Questions. What is said of the machinery in different animals? What of the variety of motion in the foot of man, and in his hand? What of the apparent simplicity of the hand as an instrument? What of its movements? What of its internal structure? What is said of the thumb? In what consists the chief superiority of the frame of man to that of other animals? In what respects are some animals superior to him? What is said of his erectness? What of his form and mode of movement? What of his face? What is the grand distinction between man and other animals? What is said of the machinery which the mind uses? What is said of language? What of making tools? What two views are taken of man, and to what modes of expression do these give rise? How many varieties are there of the human race, and what are they? Describe the Caucasian, the Ethiopian, the Mongolian, the American, the Malay. What is the testimony of the Bible as to their origin? Give the comparison between the varieties of the human race, and the varieties in animals. What is said of national and family varieties?

CHAPTER III.

FOOT-HANDED AND HAND-WINGED VERTEBRATES.

42. THE sub-class which I call Pėdimana is termed, in the common classifications of zoologists, the order Quadrumana, four-handed animals. It is the ape and monkey-tribe. I have already spoken in Chapter II. of the capabilities of the hand of man as an instrument. If we compare them with the very limited capabilities of the hand of the ape or monkey, we must agree with Sir Charles Bell, who says that “ we ought to define the

hand as belonging exclusively to man." The chief object in the construction of the so-called hands of this tribe is to enable them to grasp the limbs of trees in climbing, in which they are greatly skilled. They are very imitative beings; but, even when they are subjected to long training, they can do but a few of the many things that can be done by the hands of man. On the whole, we may say that they have four members which partake in part of the character of a hand, and in part of that of a foot. It is for this reason that I have adopted the name of Pedimana, foot-handed. There is another reason for this in the fact stated by Dr. Carpenter, that one large division of this tribe have this resemblance to hands in only one pair of the extremities, and that the hinder pair. It is for this reason that he suggested the name which I have adopted, giving it less breadth of meaning, however, than I do. The suggestion is so good a one, that I wonder that he did not adopt it in his classification.*

* I may be considered by some as presumptuous in thus changing a name which has so long been retained in zoological classifications that it has almost acquired a right to its place by possession. But if the suggestion of Dr. Carpenter be a correct one, following it out fully can not only do no harm, but will certainly do good by placing the subject in its true light. If Sir Charles Bell is right in saying that no animal but man has truly a hand, and if the estimate which, in Chapter II., I have put upon this instrument, as fitly corresponding with man's mental capabilities, be correct, it is surely going very wide of the truth to call the hand-feet of the ape and monkey tribe real hands. In this connection, I will remark on another change that I have made in the commonly received classification. Ordinarily, man is considered as one of the orders of the sub-class Unguiculata. But I have put him (§ 24) in a sub-class by himself, thus not only separating him more distinctly from other animals, as I think truth requires, but securing in other respects a more natural classification of the whole class of Mammalia.

In some classifications man is placed in even nearer relations to other animals than in the one ordinarily received. Thus, in that retained up to the present time in the British Museum, the first order of the class Mammalia is Primates, including man, apes, monkeys, bab

43. There are three divisions of this sub-class ordinarily recognized: the Simiada, or monkey tribe of the Old World; the Cebidæ, or monkey tribe of the New World; and the Lemurida, which are found chiefly in the island of Madagascar, and to some extent in Africa and India. All these animals are inhabitants of tropical climates, and live chiefly on fruits, in getting which from trees most of them show greater agility than any other animals. They are disposed to gather in troops, a tree sometimes having nearly a hundred monkeys in its branches.

44. The Simiadæ are classed in three divisions: the apes, which have no tails; the baboons, that have very short ones; and the monkeys, that have long ones. will notice some of the prominent species of each.

I

45. The Chimpanzee, Fig. 11, which is in shape more like

oons, and bats, as the different families of the order, the second order being Feræ, or wild beasts. Such a classification is not merely incorrect, but ridiculous.

man than any other animal, is found in the west part of Africa. Its height is from four to five feet. It commonly goes on all-fours, but it walks occasionally on its hinder hand-feet, though not with the erectness of man. Its ears are very large, and it has long, black, coarse hair, which hangs in heavy whiskers about its cheeks. It climbs trees readily, sometimes for observation, and sometimes to gather food; and it makes a nest for itself by twining branches of trees together, in which it spends much of its time. Its strength is astonishing; it being able to break off branches which two men together can not bend.

46. The Orang-outang, Fig. 12, is an inhabitant of the

islands of Borneo and Sumatra. This is the largest of the apes, having been known to be in some cases over seven feet high. Its arms are of great length, reaching to the ground when it is erect. It can not stand as well