24. I divide the class Mammals into five sub-classes: 1. Bimana (Latin bis twice, and manus hand), two-handed animals. Man is the only representative of this subclass. 2. Pedimana (Pes foot, and manus), foot-handed animals. This is the ape and monkey tribe. The name which I have given it is different from that which it commonly has in the classifications of zoologists, and the grounds of the change I will state when I come to speak particularly of this tribe. 3. Cheiroptera, hand-winged animals, or the bat tribe. This name is taken from two Greek words, xap, cheir, hand, and πɛρоv, pteron, wing. 4. Quadrupeds, or four-footed Mammals. Of these there are two divisions, the Unguiculata (Latin unguis, a nail or claw), and the Ungulata, from ungula, a hoof. 5. Cetacea, marine Mammals, or the whale tribe. These have neither hands nor feet. They were formerly classed with fishes, but although they are shaped like fishes, they have warm blood, and suckle their young, and have lungs and not gills. They, therefore, belong among Mammals, although they live in the water.

Questions. What are the four grand divisions of the Animal Kingdom? Describe the skeleton of man. What is said of the central column of bones? Describe its arrangement in man. What is said of this column in quadrupeds? What of it in birds? What of it in fishes? What of it in the turtle tribe? What of it in the body, neck, and tails of various Vertebrates? What of it in the snakes? What is said of the variety in the skeletons of different vertebrates? Why are they called Vertebrates? What is said of the nervous system of the Vertebrates? Describe the arrangement of the spinal marrow. What gives the Articulates their name? How are the muscles of the Articulates arranged? What are the chief classes of this subkingdom? What is said of the covering of these different tribes? Describe the arrangement of the nervous system of the Articulates. What is said of the Mollusks? Why do the Radiates have this name? What is the arrangement of their nervous system? What is said of the relative rank of the four sub-kingdoms? What of the use of the word perfect in regard to organization? Give the distinction between species and varieties. Give the various terms used in classification and their meaning. What are the grand divisions of the Vertebrates?

State the difference between them. Give the difference between the two classes of warm-blooded Vertebrates. What is the derivation of oviparous and viviparous? Name the sub-classes of the Mammals. What is said of the first class? What of the second? Of the third? Of the fourth? Of the fifth

CHAPTER II.

MAN.

25. MAN is said to stand at the head of the animal kingdom. It is well that you should understand precisely what this means. We may consider every animal as a set of machinery, which is worked by means of the nervous system. In some animals this machinery is very simple, as in those which are nearly all stomach (§ 19). In others it is complicated. In man it is more so than in any other animal. For example, take that part of the machinery that is used in motion. Compare man with any animal in this respect. How many more motions he can make with his feet than a horse, or an ox, or a dog. The dog can walk, run, jump, and paw. To say nothing of other motions, observe in contrast the extreme varieties of motion of which the feet of man are capable in dancing.

26. There is no part of the machinery of the body in which man is so manifestly superior to other animals as in that of the hand. The variety of things that this machinery can do is so great, that you can get an adequate idea of it only by watching the motions of the hand in all the different kinds of work and play in which it engages.*

27. Look now at the instrument or machine itself. How simple it appears! You have merely a thumb and

* This and many other of the points in this chapter are quite fully treated in my "Child's Book of Nature," and "First Book in Physiology."

four fingers joined to the body of the hand; but observe how the thumb can be made to meet the tip of either finger, or to touch the tips of all of them at once, and how each finger can move independently of the others, or all can move together. Then observe, farther, in how many different ways the hand can take hold of different things, such as a pen, a whip, a rope, a string, an axe,

etc.

28. What appears so simple when we look only at the outside, is found to be exceedingly complicated when examined within by the anatomist. The frame-work of this machine is made up of 32 bones, and there are numerous muscles with their cords or tendons. Then there are countless fibres branching from the nerves into these muscles. It is by these nerves that the mind in the brain works all this machinery.

29. Many animals have something like fingers, but none but man have any thing like thumbs except the monkey and ape tribe, and the opossum family; and in these the thumb is but a poor imitation of this organ in

man.

30. While man is superior to all other animals in the variety of machinery in his body, there are some things in which some animals are superior to him. The horse, that is so inferior to man in the variety of his muscular movement, has better running machinery than he has. The monkey, the squirrel, the cat, etc., are better climbers. Fishes are better swimmers. And some animals have machinery which man does not possess at all, as flying machinery. The body of man, then, is superior to that of all other animals as a whole, but not in all respects.

31. The body of man is superior to that of other animals in some things besides those already mentioned. It is the only animal body that can maintain a perfectly erect position. The monkey can, indeed, stand and walk on its hind feet, or rather its foot-hands; but its position

B

is by no means perfectly erect, and it goes on all-fours except when compelled to do otherwise by its keeper.

32. There is superiority also in beauty of form and grace of movement. To make the comparison correctly, take the most beautiful and graceful of animals, and place them side by side with the most beautiful and graceful of the human race. Look now at form in detail. Take, for example, the upper extremity of man. Is there any thing in the limb of any animal to compare with it in its varied beauty of outline as it is placed in different positions? Observe, too, its graceful movements, and contrast their endless variety with the very limited grace of the corresponding limb of the inferior animal.

33. But in the face more than in any other part is seen this superiority both in form and movement. And when we look at the body as a whole, with its commanding erectness, the varied grace of all its parts as it moves, and its crowning head so full of the graces of expression, we realize that the human body is the only one that is a fit tenement of a soul made in the image of God.

34. This leads me to say that really the grand distinction between man and other animals is in the mind rather than in the body. He not only thinks more than any other animals do, but much of his thinking is wholly dif ferent from theirs. Even the most thinking of them know nothing about the difference between right and wrong, or about God; and you can not in any way teach them any thing in relation to such subjects.

35. As the mind of man is so superior to that of other animals, it can use more machinery than theirs can, and therefore more machinery is furnished it. For this reason man has a much larger brain than any other animal in proportion to the size of the body. The machinery of the hand is furnished to him because his mind requires it for the proper exercise of its powers on the world around. It would do no good to furnish a horse or a dog with a hand, for he would not know how to use it. Each ani

mal is supplied with just the bodily machinery that its wants and capabilities require.

36. It is because the mind of man is not only superior to that of other animals, but is different in kind in some respects, that man has made and is continually making language. This no other animal has ever done. The inferior animals may have natural cries and signs, but they never agree to use artificial ones, and language is naught but a set of artificial signs. Some animals imitate spoken language, but they never make it.

37. For the same reason man is the only animal that makes tools, and some one proposed to designate man as a tool-making animal. I think that we may go so far as to say that other animals never use tools placed in their way except from imitation of man. And even the most knowing and imitative do but little at this. "An ape," says Wood," will sit delighted by a flame which a chance traveler has left, and spread its hands over the genial blaze; but when the glowing ashes fade, it has not sufficient understanding to supply fresh fuel, but sits and moans over the expiring embers."

38. If we look at the mind of man alone we do not think of him as an animal. We think of him in this light only when we observe his bodily organization, and see its resemblance to that of the higher orders of animals, and even in some respects to that of the lower also. These two views of man are seen in the common expressions which are used. When we use such expressions as man and other animals, or man and the inferior animals, we have in view bodily organization. When, on the other hand, we use the expression man and animals, we have regard to those mental endowments which separate man entirely from animals. It is not in this view, but in the former, that the zoologist regards man in his classification.

39. Mankind are one species, as already stated in § 20. But there are certain varieties or races of men quite distinct from each other. The Caucasian race inhabits, for