"A right action being one conformed to the law, we may rightly say the actor had a right to perform it...... And thus we come at once, as it were, abruptly to a right definition of duty."

This fault arises from paucity of language.

Tautology, so far as regards the coupling of synonymous words and phrases, is admissible under the following circumstances;

(I). When one word does not express the full sense intended. We have seen that no two words are exactly synonymous; the one has a shade of meaning that the other wants. Hence, it sometimes happens in expository composition and in poetry that to use the two so-called synonymes together adds force and clearness to the whole expression.

(II). When it is necessary to give great force to the principal clause of a sentence, so as to make it stand prominently forth from accompanying subordinate adjuncts. Hence such phrases as "the head and front," "the end and design," &c. (III). In oratorical outbursts, when the speaker is strongly excited and wishes to raise his hearers' minds to a corresponding pitch of passion. amples ;

Ex

"I am astonished, I am shocked, to hear such principles confessed, to hear them avowed in this house and in this country." (Chatham). Here we have also a species of climax, which the student may point out.

"But all is little, and low, and mean, among us." (Bolingbroke).

(b). By Redundancy (or Pleonasm), which consists in the

employment of unnecessary words. While Tautology adds an unnecessary word in the same grammnetical place, Redundancy repeats the meaning in a different place. Examples;—

"He appears to enjoy the universal esteem of all men.' "They returned back again to the same city from whence they came forth."

"The different departments of science and of art mutually reflect light on each other."

"The Egyptians used to use myrrh, spices, and nitre for embalming the dead bodies of the deceased." "By a multiplicity and variety of words, the thoughts and sentiments are not set off and accommodated; but, like David dressed out and equipped in Saul's armour, they are encumbered and oppressed." "The world is fitly compared to a stage, and the inhabitants to the actors who perform their parts." "Every man on the face of the earth has duties to perform."

Redundancy to a certain extent is pardonable in poetry and in very impassioned discourse. Thus; We have seen it with our own eyes.

66

(c). By Circumlocution which (See Diffusion) is a roundabout diffuse way of expressing a simple thought. The remedy for Circumlocution consists, not in leaving out parts, but in recasting the whole sentence in simpler and terser language. The remodelling is often effected by shortening clauses into phrases. Example;—

(Diffuse). "Pope professed to have learned his poetry from Dryden, whom whenever an opportunity presented itself, he praised through the whole period of his existence with a liberality which never varied;

and perhaps his character may receive some illustration, if a comparison be instituted between him and the man whose pupil he was."

(Condensed). "Pope professed himself the pupil of Dryden, whom he lost no opportunity of praising; and his character may be illustrated by comparing him with his master."

Students are especially liable to fall into the fault of Circumlocution in their paraphrasing: this should be carefully guarded against.

Circumlocution may sometimes be employed with good effect in poetry and in very serious discourse. Thus;

“Nine times the space that measures night and day

To mortal men, he with his horrid crew

Lay vanquished, rolling in the fiery gulf." (Milton). "It would take a good deal of argument to convince me of that."

"Cromwell set himself up above all that was ever called sovereign in England." (Cowley.)

PURITY.

64. Rhetorical Purity requires that the words and expressions employed by us shall be such as are authorized by modern writers of known fame. Purity may be violated in the following ways;—

(a). By using foreign words and phrases, especially such as are found at the end of most dictionaries and spelling books. Students who make use of such expressions betray their vanity, and often their ignorance, while pretending to display learning. It is true that

really learned men occasionally make use of such terms; but, when they do so, it is because they can distinguish a nice shade of meaning in the term used, which no English expression can exactly convey. But students cannot pretend to such a power of discrimination. Dr. Haven says, "A show of erudition, with which to astonish the vulgar, may be obtained from an encyclopaedia in half an hour, but it will never deceive the learned." The only occasion on which students are advised to use foreign terms is in describing Japanese objects or ideas for which no exact equivalent can be found in English. It is then permissible to use the Japanese expression; but in doing this, be careful never to add to it an English inflection. Thus, do not speak of "Two yens;" "Three ris;" "Four tsubos," &c.

(b). By making new words. It will easily be understood that this can never be permissible to the student of a foreign language. In fact, it is allowable only to the inventor or discoverer of some new thing or process. The easiest way for a student to avoid this fault is to refer, in all cases of doubt, to some well-known dictionary, and thus to see (I). whether the word he proposes to use is recognised in itself, and (II). whether it is capable, without strain, of conveying the meaning intended to be expressed by it. The latter consideration brings us face to face with an error into which Japanese students are peculiarly liable to fall. Owing to the imperfect knowledge of English yet acquired by the best Japanese scholars, and to the equally imperfect knowledge of the Japanese language to which foreigners have attained, it often happens that words in English-Japanese dictionaries

are very badly rendered. Again, students frequently make use of words which are indeed to be found in English dictionaries, but which are almost unintel ligible to Englishmen in consequence of the extreme rarity of their use. In dictionaries there are to be found certain words peculiar to the writings of two or three authors, but never used elsewhere. Now these points present much difficulty to the thoughtful student. In the first place, he needs much practice to enable him to discriminate between what are admissible, and what are inadmissible, words. Further, it must be confessed that probably the careful student will, at first, commit more errors of this kind than the careless one. But fortunately one good practical rule for his guidance can be given. In paragraph 56, it is recommended that a note book should be kept, in which words and expressions met with for the first time should be entered. Now such a book will be found of very great use, since words will there be found used in connection with sentences, whereby individual meanings will be clearly brought out, and phrases can be reproduced in compositions on analogous subjects.

(c). By using obsolete and obsolescent words. Obsolete words are those that have gone out of use in modern writings. Obsolescent words are those that are in process of falling into disuse. Other words again have changed, or are changing, their original signification. Thus 66 a cunning knave" once meant "a clever workman," while now it signifies "a dishonest rogue;" "Presently" formerly meant "immediately," now it signifies" at some future time." "at

(d). By using colloquial, or common conversational,