general principles have been laid down;(a). The words used should be appropriate to the character of the audience or of the readers. We have seen (58.) that the most learned scientists, when addressing a mixed audience discard almost entirely purely technical terms, and adopt what is called a 'popular style.' When such men find it necessary to make use of a technical word, they are careful to define and illustrate it. Again, books written for young children exhibit a style and phraseology of their own.

(b). The words used should be appropriate to the power

and disposition of the writer; or, in other words, the style should be both natural and earnest. On this point, the following remarks of Dr. Angus deserve attention ;-" Some of the most effective speakers are so simple that even children understand them; while others change in the same paragraph from grave to gay,' from lively to severe,' and become the more impressive. The fact is that......man is a complex being, and appeals adapted to his whole nature are often more effective than those that touch only a part. If a writer is natural, and is believed to be in earnest, humour on even serious topics will often prove more impressive than dry dignity." Here we can trace the cause of failure of many composition exercises. The teacher or reader suddenly comes across some very highflown expression borrowed from a writer more or less known, perhaps quite unknown, to him. But, remembering that the exercise is written by a student who is struggling with the elementary difficulties of a foreign language, the teacher's mind receives a shock. He says this expression cannot

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1

be natural; it is altogether beyond the power and the character of this student." His thoughts are taken away from the subject matter of the composition and dwell on this particular impropriety of language; while if, as very often happens, the quoted passage is quite out of keeping with the surrounding sentences, a feeling of ridicule is stirred in the reader's mind; and the composition is irretrievably ruined. This is well exemplified by an incident in the career of a noted author, James Thomson,-thus related by Dr. Collier; Thomson tried his pen, too, upon tragedy; but Sophonisba perished from the stage in a few nights, killed by the echo of one weak line.

"O Sophonisba! Sophonisba, O!"

wrote the poor poet :

"O Jemmy Thomson! Jemmy Thomson, O!"

cried some critical mocking-bird; and the mischiet was done."

(c). The words used should be appropriate to the subject discussed, and to the purpose we have in view in discussing it. Generally, plain English words aro most appropriate when we describe individual things, natural feeling, domestic life, the poetry of nature; while words of classic origin are suitable to describe the results of generalization or abstraction, the discoveries of science, &c. Again, if the object is to inform or convince the understanding, plain, simple words used in a literal sense are most appropriate; while to excite the feelings or dazzle the imagination, florid, figurative terms are suitable.

64

CONCISENESS.

61. The value of Conciseness or Brevity has already been pointed out. (58). Conciseness consists in using the smallest number of words necessary for the complete expression of a thought. The concise writer tries to express himself in the briefest possible manner, rejects as redundant everything not material to the sense, presents a thought but once, and then in its most striking light, and suggests more than he directly expresses. In order to acquire a concise style, we must give special attention to the following points;

62.

(a). The selection of the fittest words. We have already given many hints and suggestions on this point. We may add here that when the student has written his composition, he should read it over carefully to himself and strike out every word, phrase, or clause, that can be omitted without lessening the clearness or the force of his sentences.

(b). The grammatical structure of the sentences. In
my Grammar I have frequently pointed out the ten-
dency of language to shorten clauses into phrases,
and these again into single words. Thus ;-

I purchased some books that are not charged in the bill.
I purchased some books not charged in the bill.
I purchased some books not in the bill.
(c). The use of figures of speech, especially Simile,

Metaphor, Transferred Epithet, Antithesis, Epigram.
The effect of these in shortening sentences has already
been fully pointed out.

In aiming at Conciseness we must be careful not to sacrifice Clearness or Propriety. Thus, an explanation must be suited in length to the mental capacity of the

persons addressed; a poet or an orator makes use of repetition and of accumulated epithets to excite the feelings and the passions of his hearers. Hence it happens that a Diffuse style is sometimes used with advantage. The diffuse writer presents his thoughts in a variety of lights, and endeavours by repetition to make himself understood. Conciseness and Diffuseness have their respective advantages, and each becomes faulty when carried to excess. Too great conciseness produces obscurity; too great diffuseness leads to circumlocution, a fault to be presently discussed. As a general rule, the concise style is suitable for books intended to instruct, for descriptions, essays, and sublime writing. The student or reader has an opportunity of pausing, reflecting on, and verifying what he sees in print before him. On the other hand, the diffuse style is suitable to lectures and addresses, where the meaning has to be caught at the moment from the lips of the speaker, and if not apprehended at once is liable to be lost and forgotten. The following from Professor Huxley will show the emphasis gained by the frequent repetition of an important word;

"Do not allow yourself to be misled by the common notion that a hypothesis is untrustworthy because it is a hypothesis. It is often urged, in respect to some scientific conclusion, that, after all, it is only a hypothesis. But what more have we to guide us in nine-tenths of the most important affairs of daily life than hypotheses, and often very ill-based ones? So that in science, where the evidence of a hypothesis is subjected to the most rigid examination, we may rightly pursue the same course. You may have hypotheses and hypotheses. A man may say, if he likes, that the moon is made of green cheese: that is a hypothesis. But another man, who has devo

ted a great deal of time and attention to the subject, and availed himself of the most powerful telescopes and the results of the observations of others, declares that, in his opinion, it is probably composed of materials very similar to those of which our earth is made up and that also is a hypothesis."

Again, although it is a general rule that repetition of pronouns and conjunctions enfeebles style; yet emphasis sometimes requires such repetition. (See Grammar, 586). Example ;

"Seasons return, but not to me returns

Day, or the sweet approach of ev'n or morn,

Or sight of vernal bloom or summer's rose,

Or flocks or herds or human face divine." (Milton).

63. Conciseness is violated in three ways;

(a). By Tautology, which is the repetition of the same idea in different words. Examples;—

"The whole nation applauded his magnanimity and
greatness of mind."

"It was the privilege and birthright of every citizen
and poet, to rail aloud and in public." (Swift).
"Integrity hath many advantages over the fine and
artificial ways of dissimulation and deceit; it is much
the plainer and easier, much the safer and more
secure way of dealing with the world; it has less of
trouble and difficulty, of entanglement and perplexity,
of danger and hazard in it. The arts of deceit and
cunning do continually grow weaker, and less effectual
and serviceable to them that use them." (Tillotson).
"The dawn is overcast, the morning lowers,

And heavily in clouds brings on the day." (Addison).
Another form of Tautology is the repetition of a word
in a sentence. Example;-