4.

have elicited the admiration of men. Certain passages have been analysed; the peculiarities which render them pathetic, sublime, or beautiful, have been investigated; and thus rules have been formed, by which the critic is enabled to judge of other literary performances, and the writer is shown how to express his thoughts in such a way as to reproduce similar impressions. Thus, Aristotle, by close observation of Sophocles and Homer, perceiving that these writers, by confining themselves in each of their respective works, to one action complete in itself, awakened deeper interest in their readers, than those who combined unconnected facts,-generalized the important principle that, in the drama and the epic poem, unity of design is essential to success.

All the rules of Rhetoric have been deduced in a similar manner, and are thus founded at once on experience and nature.

To attain proficiency in the art of Composition, due attention must be paid to the rules and principles of Rhetoric. A knowledge of Grammar alone is not sufficient, for Composition has been said to differ from Grammar as architecture differs from the rules of building. "Grammar is based on certain definite laws and on custom; Composition, on insight and taste. Grammar shapes sentences according to external rule; Composition, according to feeling and sentiment. Grammar teaches us to speak and write accurately; Composition, clearly, impressively, efficiently. Grammar is a means; Composition, the end." Hence, as guides to Composition, the principles of Rhetoric step in where the rules of Grammar stop short; and therefore we shall here proceed to investigate these rhetorical principles before examining the various kinds of Composition.

6.

The whole subject will here be discussed under the following heads;

I. The Figures of Speech.

II.

The Number and the Order of Words.

III. The Qualities of Style.

IV.

V.

VI.

The Sentence and the Paragraph; together with
the Principles of Punctuation, and the Use of
Capital Letters.

The Different Kinds of Prose Composition.
Poetry and the Drama.

VII. The Principles of Elocution.

SECTION I.

THE FIGURES OF SPEECH.

6. Figures of Speech are deviations from the plain and ordinary mode of writing or speaking, with a view to greater effect. The meaning first given to a word is. called its literal meaning. Thus the literal meaning of head is that part of the body containing the brain. The literal meaning of body is the whole physical structure of an animal. A meaning different from the first and yet suggested by the first, is called a figurative meaning. Thus the word head may mean a commanding man in a company; the first object in a collection; the starting place of a river; the title of a chapter. Body may mean an army; an assembly; the principal part of any structure, whether animal or otherwise.

7.

Besides the regular Figures of Rhetoric we have certain Figures of Grammar, which may be briefly noticed here;

(a). Figures of Orthography, or deviations from the ordinary Spelling of words ;

(I). Mimesis consists in imitating the mispronuncia

tion of a word, by means of false spelling; as, "Never shall you darken Sairey's doors agen, you brazien serpiant."

(II). Archaism consists in spelling a word according to ancient usage; as,

"The next morowe with Phoebus lampe the erthe

Alightned clere, and eke the dawninge daye

The shadowes danke gan from the pole remove." (b). Figures of Etymology, or deviations from the ordinary form of words;

(I). Aphaeresis is the elision of a letter or letters from

the beginning of a word; as, 'bove for above; 'neath
for beneath.

(II). Prosthesis is the prefixing of a letter or letters
to a word; as, adown for down; bedecked for decked.
(III). Syncope is the omission of a letter or letters
from the middle of a word; as, e'en for even;
ha'penny for halfpenny.

(IV). Apocope is the elision of a letter or letters at
the end of a word; as, th' for the; tho' for though.
(V). Paragoge is the suffixing of a letter or letters

to a word; as vasty for vast; withouten for without.
(VI). Diaeresis is the separation into different syl-
lables of two contiguous vowels that might unite
in a diphthong. This figure is usually indicated
by placing two dots over the last of the separated
vowels; as, aeronaut instead of aeronaut; Coöperate
for cooperate.

(VII). Synaeresis is the condensing of two syllables
into one; as walk'st for walkest; lov'd for loved.
(VIII). Tmesis is the separation of the parts of a
compound word by introducing another word (or
words) between them; as, "What way soever he
turned."

(c). Figures of Syntax, or deviations from the ordinary construction of words ;-

(I). Ellipsis is the omission of a word or words necessary to the construction of a sentence, but which can be easily understood; as,

8.

"Who never fasts, no banquet e'er enjoys."
"Bliss is the same in subject or in king,
In who obtain defence, or who defend."
"Who steals my purse steals trash......
But he that filches from me my good name,
Robs me of that which not enriches him,
And makes me poor indeed."

(II). Pleonasm is the use of superfluous words; as,
"The boy, oh! where was he?

Pleonasm is allowable in questions and in animated discourse;

"Yon silver beams,

Sleep they less sweetly on the cottage thatch

Than on the dome of kings?"

(III). Enallage is the use of one part of speech, or one form of a word, for another; as,

66

They fall successive and successive rise." "Sure some disaster has befell."

This figure should be carefully avoided by young composers; in fact, what, in the works of a few great authors of established reputation, is called enallage, would, if resorted to by ordinary writers, be considered gross grammatical blundering. (IV). Hyberbaton is the transposition of words; as, "he wanders earth around," for "he wanders around earth." This figure constitutes one of the chief features that distinguish poetry from prose. Judiciously used in either, it imparts variety, strength, and animation to composition.

Before proceeding to discuss the Figures of Rhetoric, it may be well to point out some of the advantages of Figurative Language in general.

(a). Figures enrich language by increasing its facilities