VIRTUE.-ALIMENTS.

ed, of love, desire, hope, joy, and pleasing recollection, enhance each other; so do the five ungrateful ones of hatred, aversion, fear, grief, and displeasure.

As happiness and misery, virtue and vice, depend almost entirely on the proper exercise of the passions and affections, the study of their nature and influence should become a distinct and primary branch of education. Virtue, therefore, consists not only in an exemplary desire of regulating all our thoughts and pursuits by right principles, but also by so acting as to produce beneficial results to others as well as to ourselves. Vice is distinguished by unhappy effects, by conduct and propensities opposed to those of virtue, and consists in depraved affections and ungoverned passions. Religion is evinced by a laudable desire of rectitude, of yielding obedience to the divine command, and habitual solicitude to obtain the divine favor. Devotion is the religious temper or disposition applied to prayers and meditations which deeply interest the affections. Superstition is a consecrated self-interest, without either love or regard to the supposed duties it enjoins, or to its object. He who imagines that the divine favor is to be gained by a strict attention to frivolous ceremonies is superstitious. A tenacious reverence for unimportant sentiments, with a disposition towards those whose opinions are opposite, constitutes bigotry. An incessant desire to propagate some particular sentiment, or principle, to make proselytes, from whatever motive, is called zeal. The decided ascendancy of some particular object in the mind is denominated a passion, as a passion for music, &c. When this predilection occupies all our thoughts, and incites us to the most vigorous exertions with such an ardor and constancy as to brave all difficulties, it is termed enthusiasm. Even our motives form various species of desire, which characterize the prevailing disposition; such as integrity, fidelity, loyalty, honesty, industry, honor, &c.; or treachery, treason, fraud, artifice, deceit, cruelty, &c.; according as they are influenced by worthy or unworthy dispositions. An invincible predilection to some one thing, opinion, or sentiment, extreme contempt for all other kinds of knowledge, and an obstinate opposition of private opinion as the only counterpoise to public sentiment, without any regard to the weight of evidence on either side, are the invariable features of fanaticism:

PART II.

ALIMENTS.

ALIMENTS are those materials, from which the different orders of created beings derive their nourishment. To most animals, nature has assigned but a limited range of aliment; but to man an extensive choice has been allotted. The vegetable and animal kingdoms, fruits, grains, roots, and herbs, flesh, fish, and fowl, all contribute to his suste

nance.

ALIMENTS.

It is an interesting inquiry, How aliments so diversified in structure, and sensible qualities, become assimilated in one system, and contribute to our support? To this question, it may be answered, that all organized beings, animal as well as vegetable, are composed principally of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, lime, sulphur, and phosphorus. Different combinations of these elements make up the whole of their material systems.

Now, then, as the human frame is composed of the above materials, its daily waste must be supplied, by substances which yield these materials. These are to be found in various animal and vegetable substances, used by man as food. This food, when masticated, is received into the stomach, where it is exposed to the action of the gastric fluid, a powerful solvent of animal and vegetable matters. Here, it soon undergoes an important change, being reduced to a soft and similar mass called chyme. From the stomach, the digested chyme passes into the intestines; where, subjected to the action of the bile, the pancreatic and mucous secretions, it undergoes still further changes; the result of all which is the formation and separation of a bland, white, milky fluid, called chyle. The chyle is sucked up by numerous vessels, called ab. sorbent lacteals, to whose orifice it is every where exposed, in passing through the intestinal canal. These absorbents after numerous communications, terminate in one common trunk, by which the chyle is mixed with the blood, and subjected to the action of the heart and arteries. Circulated now through the lungs, it undergoes new changes, from the respiration of the atmosphere ;-it is incorporated with the common circulating mass, and becomes itself blood, the fountain from which all the other constituent parts of the body are formed, and renewed.

Such is a concise account of the manner, by which animal and vegetable substances contribute to the support of the human frame-a process, though complex, taken in all its parts, yet easily understood; and when understood, eminently calculated to draw forth admiration, in view of the wisdom of God.

The gastric fluid of man is capable of digesting a great variety of animal and vegetable matters. And the structure of his body, his instinct and experience, clearly indicate, that his Maker designed him to derive his aliment, from both the animal and vegetable kingdoms.

We say from both, for it is obvious that neither is suited to form the whole of our daily aliment. Animal food is more nutricious; but, from its heating and stimulating nature, when exclusively used, it exhausts and debilitates the system, which it at first invigorates and supports. And it is matter of observation and experience, that those persons, who confine themselves to animal diet, become heavy and indolent; the tone and excitability of their frame are impaired; they are afflicted with indigestion, and numerous other infirmities.

On the other hand, vegetables are ascescent, and less stimulating; they are, also, less nourishing, and of more difficult assimilation, than food derived from the animal kingdom. A pure vegetable diet seems insufficient to raise the human system to all the strength and vigor of which it is capable.

Some eastern nations, indeed, and thousands of individuals of every

ALIMENTS.

nation, live almost entirely on vegetable aliment. But these, it is remarked, are seldom so robust, so active, so brave, as men who live on a mixed diet of animal and vegetable food.

In truth, a mixed diet of animal and vegetable food, it is believed, is the best suited to the nature and condition of man. The proportions, in which these should be used, we shall not attempt to settle. But generally the quantity of vegetable food should exceed. Indeed, it is doubtful whether sedentary men should ever use animal food, more than once a day. Inhabitants of warmer climates require less than those of higher latitudes, and the sedentary of every climate less than those who labor.

All the products of vegetation are far from being equally nutritious. Some, indeed, instead of being alimentary, are highly noxious to animal life. The wax, resins, and balsams, the astringent, bitter, and narcotic principles are often used medicinally; but never as food, and those vegetables which abound in these cannot, with safety, be used as aliments.

The alimentary principles of vegetation are gum, or mucilage, starch, gluten, jell, fixed oil, sugar, and acids; and the different vegetables, and parts of vegetables, are nutritious, wholesome, and digestible, according to the nature and proportion of these principles, contained in them.

The lightest kind of nourishment is afforded by the mucilage, jelly and acids of vegetables. The sugar and fixed oils are more nutritive; but not so digestible. The starch and gluten are the most nutritive; and together with mucilage, are at the same time, the most abundant principies contained in those vegetables, from which man derives his sustenance. Of these, the gluten approaches nearest the nature of animal substances. Wheat, barley, oats, rye, rice, millet, and Indian corn, abound in farinaceous matter, a compound of the most nutritive alimentary principles of vegetables.

Wheat flour contains by much the largest quantity of gluten; the flour of other nutritive grains, but very little of it. It is this large proportion of gluten, which gives the superiority to wheat, over all other grains. Starch and mucilage, are the chief alimentary principles of other grains; and hence, the bread formed from them is inferior to that made of wheat.

Rice is the chief sustenance of some nations; and, when boiled, affords an agreeable and nourishing food of easy digestion, and not so apt to sour on the stomach, as some other grains. Barley bread is viscid and not very digestible. Rye bread is ascescent, and not so easily digested; but useful in costive habits, from its tendency to open the bowels. Oat bread is nutritive and wholesome, and easy to be digested. The flour of millet forms but indifferent bread, but excellent, wholesome, and nourishing pottages and puddings. Indian corn is nutritive and laxative.

The seeds of leguminous plants, such as peas, and beans, afford a great quantity of alimentary matter; though less than the grains we have noticed. The nutritious matter is a compound of starch and mucilage. Their flour is sometimes formed into bread; but it is coarse

ALIMENTS.

and indifferent, and not easily digestible. These seeds are not more nutritive, but generally more palatable, and wholesome, when green, young, and tender, and simply boiled, than when fully ripened and baked. Yet, with some constitutions, they are apt to produce flatulency, and disorder of the stomach and bowels.

The potatoe, either boiled or roasted, as it is one of the most useful, is, perhaps, after the grains, one of the most wholesome, and most nutritive vegetables, in common use. Its alimentary properties are great as is proved by general experience, and especially by that of the Irish peasantry, a robust and hardy race, who derive their principal sustenance from this invaluable root. When mixed with wheat, it forms a wholesome and nutritive bread. The sweet, or Spanish potatoe, yam, and artichoke, come near to the potatoe in their nutritive properties; but do not equal it. The roots of parsnips, turnips, and carrots, contain a considerable quantity of mucilage, and a small portion of saccharine matter. When boiled, they are considerably nutritive; and by most stomachs easily digested.

The beet, both white and red, contain a large proportion of sugar. They are fine for cattle; but cannot be safely used in great quantities by man, as they are apt to induce flatulence and indigestion.

In some roots, as in the onion, leek and garlic, the nutritive principle is found combined with an acrid principle, which renders them less fit for the purposes of aliment. This principle, however, is lessened by boiling, and then they are lightly nutritive and mucilaginous. The radish, too, is an acrid root; and, though much used, affords little nutriment, while it is apt to produce flatulence, and disorder of the stomach.

In some seeds, called kernels, as in the hardnut and filbert, walnut, almond, cocoa nut, cashew nut, chocolate nut, we find oil combined with their farina. This renders them nutritious; but, at the same time, indigestible. When freely used they are sure to produce flatulence, thirst, nausea, pain of the stomach, and headache; more especially, if fromage they have become rancid. Hence, they should be used sparingly, at any time.

Chocolate, which is prepared from the chocolate nut, forms a well known, wholesome, nutritious aliment, employed in many cases as a restorative. Cocoa, which is prepared from the same nut, is, however, less oily; and, on this account, decidedly preferable for weak stomachs to the chocolate.

Fixed oil is contained in many vegetables, and is sometimes obtained by expression, and is highly nutritive. Olive oil is much used in several parts of the world, particularly in Italy, and the south of France. In these countries, it is used in lieu of butter. In other countries, it is used chiefly as a sauce, or condiment to sallads and fish. With many stomachs it disagrees, being too heavy and indigestible.

The leaves, stalks and flowers of vegetables contain much less nutritious matter than the seeds and roots, already noticed. They are cooling and aperient, however, and sure to correct the stimulant, and binding effects of animal food. The vegetables to which these remarks apply are cabbage, colewort, cauliflower, brocoli, sea-kale, endive, lettuce, purslane, spinage, and asparagus. Of these, there is none

ALIMENTS.

more tender, or more wholesome than spinage. Of the varieties of cabbage, the brocoli and cauliflower are the most easily digested, and least flatulent. The asparagus is an excellent vegetagle, agreeable and wholesome, tolerably nutritious, and besides, is diuretic. The endive and lettuce are chiefly used as sallads. Lettuce has, also, some degree of narcotic and soporific effect, a quality, which depends on the bitter, milky juice contained in the leat stalks. Parsley is slightly. aromatic, little nutritive, and chiefly used to season broths, sallads, &c. Celery is highly relished by many people, as a sallad; but, raw, is not easily digested.

Of fruits, such as the peach, apricot, plum, cherry, date, fig, pear, apple, mulberry, orange, lemon, it may be observed, that they do not abound in nutritive qualities. Their nourishment depends upon the mucilage, and sugar, they contain. Together with these principles, and water, many of them, also, contain the different vegetable acids, the malic, citric, tartaric, &c.; and it is this combination, which renders them so agrecable to the taste, and so generally relished by man.

From this combination of principles, too, may be estimated the advantages and disadvantages they possess, as aliments. They are nourishing, in proportion to the mucilage, jelly and sugar, which they contain; cooling, and aperient, and antisceptic, in proportion as they are watery and acidulous. They are not of themselves capable of long supporting the strength, and renewing the waste of the system; but, conjoined with other more nutritious aliments, ripe fruits are, in their season, safe, useful, and often highly beneficial adjuvants to our diet. They obviate and correct the stimulant, and sceptic effect, of animal food; open the body, and cool and refresh the system. Hence, they are found so emenintly useful in febrile, inflammatory and scorbutic affections. Indeed, in the sea scurvy, a disease arising from the too exclusive use of a stimulating animal diet, the sub-acid fruits are sovercign remedies. By the same properties, however, they are hurtful, in cases of gravel, stone, and diabetes. Intemperately eaten, fruits have in all constitutions, and particularly in the nervous, dyspeptic, and hysteric, produced great disorder of the stomach, and bowels, cholic, diarrhoea, and cholera. Upon the whole, as a part of our daily diet, fruits are safe, and useful; but, excepting under particuler circumstances, they ought not to form the whole of any one meal, and should never be indulged in to satiety.

The pulpy fruits, such as the fig, and apple tribe, are more nutritive than the more watery, acidulous fruits, as the orange, grape and berry, The former, too, when conserved, boiled or baked, afford a light and wholesome nourishment. The sub-acid fruits, as goose berries, and currants, are advantageously made into tarts, jellies, &c. The nourishment derived from them is not great; but they are wholesome, antisceptic and cooling.

We shall next speak of animal substances. The alimentary principles of which, are gelatin, albumen, fibrine and oil, or fat.

Gelatin, or animal jelly, is a colorless, transparent, tremulous substance, found in calves' feet, in the skin, tendons, and bones of all animals. Glue and isinglass are specimens of dried gelatin. Animal jelly, when properly prepared, is very nutritious, and well adapted to per sons in a convalescent state,