year, a thousand years, or a million of years, ust as geological phenomena seem to warrant, without in the least invalidating the authority of the sacred historian, who states nothing contrary to the truth of either supposition. 2. That the materials of our globe, as then existing, were in a chaotic state. Instead of that order and beauty which we perceive on the face of nature, the whole mass presented a scene of confusion and disorder-such a scene, perhaps, as would be presented, were the earth stripped of its verdure, were its strata universally disrupted, its mountains hurled into the plains, and its rivers and seas, by some terrible convulsion, to forsake their ancient channels. 3. The passage seems to imply, that the whole, or the greater portion of the earth, as it then existed, was covered with a deluge of water: "Darkness covered the face of the deep," or the abyss.

Such was the state of the terrestrial system at the period when Moses commences his narration; no intimation being given of the period of its duration in this condition; and, consequently, nothing asserted to militate against any geological system which is founded on the facts which have been discovered respecting the organic remains which are found in the strata of our globe. It is a mistake into which too many have been apt to fall, to suppose, that Moses begins his history at the period when the first portions of material existence were created out of nothing; and that it was his design to mark the precise epoch when the whole assemblage of created beings throughout the universe was brought into existence. His primary, if not his sole intention evidently was, to detail the progress of those arrangements by which the earth was gradually reduced to that form and order in which we now behold it, from the chaotic materials which previously existed. And, as an emphatic and appropriate introduction to his narration, he states this important truth: "In the beginning God created the heaven and the earth." This passage, being of a general and comprehensive nature, decides nothing with regard to the period, or precise epoch, at which the different bodies in the universe were called into being; but is evidently intended to convey the following important truth, in opposition to all fanciful, chimerical, and atheistical notions respecting the origin of the world; namely, "That, at what period soever, in the lapse of duration, any object was brought into existence, it derived that existence froin the God of Israel, the self-existent and eternal Jehovah.”—“In the beginning God created the heaven and the earth." As the language of the sacred historian, therefore, decides nothing with regard to time-to limit the creation of every portion of the material system within the period of six thousand years, is to make an unnecessary concession to the infidel philosopher, which may afterwards be found inconsistent

with certain facts which exist in the material world.

But, whatever may be said with respect to the state and duration of the earth prior to the period at which Moses commences nis narration, it is admitted by every geologist, that our globe, as to its present form and arrangement, has been, comparatively, of but short duration. Cuvier, one of the most enlightened geologists of the age, deduces, from certain progressive changes on the earth's surface, as well as from the concurrent traditions of many nations, that the first appearance of man upon the face of the globe, or, at least, the renewal of the human race after some great catastrophe, cannot be referred to a period farther back than 5000 or 6000 years from the present time. Geologists, too, of every description, however different the systems or theories they have adopted, have all been constrained, from the evidence of fact, to admit this conclusion, "That every part of the dry land was once covered by the ocean;" thus confirming the scriptural account of that stupendous event, the universal deluge. This event, from its very nature, must have been accompanied with the most terrible convulsions, both on the exterior surface, and in the interior strata of the globe. Accordingly we find, that traces of this awful catastrophe exist in every region of the earth. Mr. Parkinson describes the whole island of Great Britain, as having, since its completion, "suffered considerable disturbance from some prodigious and mysterious power. By this power all the known strata, to the greatest depths that have been explored, have been more or less broken and displaced, and, in some places, have been so lifted, that some of the lowest of them have been raised to the surface; while portions of others, to a very considerable depth and extent, have been entirely carried away." The whole of the Alpine region in Switzerland, and the north of Italy, considered as one mass, shows the most evident marks of dislocation. At the height of 3500 feet above the level of the sea, M. Saussure met with a chasm a hundred feet wide, and so deep that he saw no bottom. All travellers on the Alps have regarded them with horror. They mark the most evident convuisions, but show no signs of having been occasioned by attrition. Mr. Townsend, speaking of the Pyrenees, which he personally inspected,

says,

"What is most remarkable is, to see four enormous chasms, almost perpendicular, which divided both mountains and their valleys, and which appear as if they had just been rent asunder." Throughout the ranges of the Andes, and in every other mountainous region, similar chasms and disruptions, indicating the former operation of some tremendous power, are frequently observed by those who visit such scenes of grandeur.-In some of the coal mines in our country, the coal is in some places lifted up or

thrown down several hundreds of feet from the places it appears originally to have occupied. "Two miles north of Newcastle," says Mr. Townsend, "one great dyke or fault throws down the coal 540 feet-at the distance of 3 miles it is cut off, and thrown down again 240 feet."

An evidence of the effects which could be produced only by a general deluge, is also afforded by those organic remains to which I have already adverted, and particularly by those immense quantities of marine shells, which have been discovered in situations so elevated, and in places so far removed from the sea, as to prove that they were left there by a flood extending over the whole globe. At Touraine, in France, a hundred miles from the sea, is a bed of shells stretching 9 leagues in extent, and 20 feet in depth, and including shells not known to belong to the neighbouring sea. Humboldt found sea shells on the Andes at an elevation of 14,120 feet above the level of the sea. The slaty mountain of La Bolca, near Verona, is famous for petrifactions, among which are enumerated more than one hundred species of fish, natives of Europe, Asia, Africa, and America, here assembled in one place.

It appears, therefore, that the researches of geology confirm the fact of a universal deluge, and thus afford a sensible proof of the credibility of the sacred historian, and, consequently, of the truth of the doctrines of Divine Revelation. But, besides the testimony which this science bears to the authenticity of Scripture History, it exhibits some of the grandest objects in the history of the physical operations of Divine Providence. It presents to our view, in a most impressive form, the majestic agency of God, in convulsing and disarranging the structure of our globe, which at first sprung from his hand in perfect order and beauty. When we contemplate the objects which this science embraces, we seem to be standing on the ruins of a former world. We behold "hills" which "have melted like wax at the presence of the Lord," and "mountains" which "have been carried into the midst of the sea." We behold rocks of enormous size, which have been rent from their foundations, and rolled from one continent to another-the most solid strata of the earth bent under the action of some tremendous power, and dispersed in fragments through the surrounding regions. We behold the summits of lofty mountains, over which the ocean had rolled its mighty billows-confounding lands and seas in one universal devastation-transporting plants and forests from one quarter of the world to another, and spreading universal destruction among the animated inhabitants of the water and the earth. When we enter the wild and romantic scene of a mountainous country, or descend into the subterraneous regions of the globe, we are ●very where struck with the vestiges of opera

tions carried on by the powers of nature, upon a scale of prodigious magnitude, and with the ex ertion of forces, the stupendous nature of which astonishes and overpowers the mind. Contem plating such scenes of grandeur, we perceive the force and sublimity of those descriptions of Deity contained in the volume of inspiration: "The Lord reigneth, he is clothed with majesty; in his hand are the deep places of the earth, the strength of the hills is his also. He removeth the mountains, and they know not: he overturneth them in his anger; he shaketh the earth out of her place, and the pillars thereof tremble. At his presence the earth shook and trembled: the foundations also of the hills moved, and were shaken, because he was wrath."—" Thou coveredst the earth with the deep, as with a garment; the waters stood above the mountains At thy rebuke they fled; at the voice of thy thunder they hastened away." While retracing such terrific displays of omnipotence, we are naturally led to inquire into the moral cause which induced the benevolent Creator to inflict upon the world such overwhelming desolations. For reason, as well as revelation, declares that a moral cause must have existed. Man must have violated the commands of his Maker, and frustrated the end of his creation; and to this conclusion the sacred historian bears ample testimony."God saw that the wickedness of man was great in the earth, and that every imagination of the thoughts of his heart was only evil continually and Jehovah said, I will destroy man whom I have created, from the face of the earth, both man and beast, and the creeping thing, and the fowls of the air."

ASTRONOMY.

When we ift our eyes towards the sky, we perceive an apparent hollow hemisphere, placed at an indefinite distance, and surrounding the earth on every hand. In the day time, the principal object which appears in the hemisphere, is the sun. In the morning, we see him rise above the distant mountains, or from the extremity of the ocean; he gradually ascends the vault of heaven, and then declines, and disappears in the opposite quarter of the sky. In the northern parts of the globe, where we reside, if about the 21st of March, we place ourselves on an open plain, with our face towards the south, the sun will appear to rise on our left, or due east, about six in the morning, and about the same hour in the evening, he will set due west. In the month of June he rises to our left, but somewhat behind us, in a direction towards the north-east, ascends to a greater height at noon than in the month of March, and, after describing a large arc of the heavens, sets on our right, and still behind us, in the north-western quarter of the sky. In the month of December, if we stand in the same position, we may observe, without turning ourselves, both his rising and setting. He rises in the south-east, ascends to a small elevation at noon, and sets in the south-west, after having described a very small arc of the heavens. Every day he appears to move a little towards the east, or contrary to his apparent diurnal motion; for the stars which are seen to the eastward of him, appear every succeeding day to make a nearer approach to the place in which he is seen. All the variety of these successive changes is accomplished within the period of 365 days 6 hours, in which time he appears to have made a complete revolution round the heavens from west to east.

The moon is the next object in the heavens which naturally attracts our attention; and she is found to go through similar variations in the course of a month. When she first becomes visible at new moon, she appears in the western part of the heavens, in the form of a crescent, not far from the setting sun. Every night she increases in size, and removes to a greater distance from the sun, till at last, she appears in the eastern part of the horizon, just as the sun disappears in the western; at which time she presents a round full-enlightened face. After this, she gradually moves farther and farther eastward, and her enlightened part gradually decreases, till at last she seems to approach the sun as nearly in the east as she did in the west, and rises ouly a little before him in the morning, in the form of a crescent. All these different changes may be traced by attending to her apparent positions, from time to time, with respect to the fixed stars. A dark shadow is occasionally seen to move across the face of the moon, which obscures her light, and gives her the appearance of tarLished copper. Sometimes this shadow covers only a small portion of her surface; at other

times it covers the whole of her disk for an nour or two, and its margin always appears of the figure of a segment of a circle. This phenomenon, which happens, at an average, about twice every year, is termed an eclipse of the moon. It is produced by the shadow of the earth falling upon the moon, when the sun, the earth, and the moon, are nearly in a straight line; and can happen only at the time of full moon. Sometimes the moon appears to pass across the body of the sun, when her dark side is turned towards the earth, covering his disk either in whole or in part, and intercepting his rays from a certain portion of the earth. This is called an eclipse of the sun, and can happen only at the time of new moon. In a total eclipse of the sun, which seldom happens, the darkness is so striking, that the planets, and some of the larger stars, are distinctly seen, and the inferior animals appear struck with terror.

Again, if, on a winter's evening, about six o'clock, we direct our view to the eastern quarter of the sky, we shall perceive certain stars just risen above the horizon; if we view the same stars about midnight, we shall find them at a considerable elevation in the south, having apparently moved over a space equal to one half of the whole hemisphere. On the next morning, about six o'clock, the same stars will be seen setting in the western part of the sky. If we turn our eyes towards the north, we shall perceive a similar motion in these twinkling orbs, but with this difference, that a very considerable number of them neither rise nor set, but seem to move round an immoveable point, called the north pole. Near this point is placed the polar star, which seems to have little or no apparent motion, and which, in our latitude, appears elevated a little more than half way between the northern part of our horizon and the zenith or point above our heads. A person who has directed his attention to the heavens for the first time, after having made such observations, will naturally inquire-Whence come those stars which begin to appear in the east? Whither have those gone, which have disappeared in the west? and, what becomes, during the day, of the stars which are seen in the night?-It will soon occur to a rational observer, who is convinced of the roundness of the earth, that the stars which rise above the eastern horizon come from another hemisphere, which we are apt to imagine below us, and when they set, return to that hemisphere again; and, that the reason why the stars are not seen in the day-time, is, not because they are absent from our hemisphere, or have ceased to shine, but because their light is obscured by the more vivid splendour of the sun. From such

This is put beyond all doubt, by the invention of the telescope; by which instrument, adapted to an equatorial motion, we are enabled to see many of the stars even at noon-day. The Author of this

observations we are led to conclude, that the glove on which we tread is suspended in empty space is surrounded on all sides by the celestial vault-and that the whole sphere of the heavens has an apparent motion round the earth every twenty-four hours. Whether this motion be real, or only apparent, must be determined by other considerations.

Such general views of the nocturnal heavens, which every common observer may take, have a tendency to expand the mind, and to elevate it to the contemplation of an invisible power, by which such mighty movements are conducted. Whether we consider the vast concave, with all its radiant orbs, moving in majestic grandeur around our globe, or the earth itself whirling round its inhabitants in an opposite direction an idea of sublimity, and of Almighty energy, irresistibly forces itself upon the mind, which throws completely into the shade the mightiest efforts of human power. The most powerful mechanical engines that were ever constructed

work, about eleven years ago, made a number of observations, by means of an equatorial telescope, to determine the following particulars:-What stars and planets may be conveniently seen in the daytime, when the sun is above the horizon? What degrees of magnifying power are requisite for distin

by the agency of man, can scarcely afford us the least assistance in forming a conception of that incomprehensible power, which, with unceas ing energy, communicates motion to revolving worlds. And yet such is the apathy with which the heavens are viewed by the greater part of mankind, that there are thousands who have occasionally gazed at the stars, for the space of fifty years, who are still ignorant of the fact, that they perform an apparent diurnal revolution round our globe.

Again, if we contemplate the heavens with some attention, for a number of successive nights, we shall find, that by far the greater part of the stars never vary their positions with respect to each other. If we observe two stars at a certain apparent distance from each other, either north or south, or in any other direction, they will appear at the same distance, and in the same relative position to each other, the next evening, the next month, and the next year. The stars, for instance, which form the sword and belt of Orion, present to our eye the same figure and relative aspect, during the whole period they are visible in winter, and from one year to another: and the same is the case with all the fixed stars in the firmament. On examining the

the sun they may be seen;-and, whether the diminution of the aperture of the telescope, or the increase of magnifying power, conduces most to ren der a star or planet visible in day light. The results of several hundreds of observations on these points, accompanied with some original deductions and remarks, are inserted in " Nicholson's Philosophical Journal," for October, 1813, vol. 36, p. 109-128. The following are some of the results which were deduced from the observations:-That a star of the first magnitude may be distinguished at any time of the day, with a magnifying power of 30 times, but

that a higher magnifying power is preferable-That most of the stars of the second magnitude may be seen with a power of 100; and with a power of 60 times, when the sun is not much more than two hours above the horizon-That the planet Jupiter, when not within 30 or 40 degrees of the sun, may be seen with a power of 15 times;-and that Venus may, in most instances, be seen with a power of from 7 to 100 times, and upwards-That Jupiter can scarcely be distinguished in the day-time, when within 26 degrees of the sun; but that Venus may be distinctly perceived near her superior conjunc tion, when only one degree and 27 minutes from the sun's margin; and, consequently, may be visible at the time of that conjunction, when her geocen tric latitude equals or exceeds 1 degree 43 minutes -That she may be perceived, like a fine, slender crescent, within 35 hours after passing her inferior conjunction, &c. &c. One practical purpose to which such observations on Venus, at the time of her superior conjunction, may be applied, is, to determine the difference (if any), between her polar and equatorial diameters. For, it is only at that conjunction that she presents to the earth a full enlightened hemisphere; and in no other position can the measure of both diameters be taken, except when she makes a transit across the sun's disk.

As the Earth, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn, are found to he spheroids, it is highly probable that Venus is of a similar figure; but this point has never yet been ascertained by actual observation. See also "The Edinburgh Philos. Journal," No. 5, for July 1820, p. 191; and No. 13, for July, 1822-"The Scots Mag." for Feb. 1814, p. 84.-"Monthly Mag." Feb. 814, and August 1820, p. 62.

certain bodies which regularly shift their positions. Sometimes they appear to move towards the east, sometimes towards the west, and at other times seem to remain in a stationary posi tion.

vens.

These bodies have obtained the name of planets, or wandering stars; and, in our latitude, are most frequently seen, either in the eastern and western, or in the southern parts of the headiscovered; six of which are, for the most part, Ten of these planetary orbs have been invisible to the naked eye. By a careful examination of the motions of these bodies, and their different aspects, astronomers have determined, that they all move round the sun as the centre of their motions, and form, along with the earth and several smaller globes, one grand and harmonious system. This assemblage of planetary bodies is generally termed the solar system, of which 1 shall now endeavour to exhibit a brief outline.

THE SOLAR SYSTEM.

Of this system, the sun is the centre and the animating principle, and by far the largest body that exists within its limits. The first thing that strikes the mind when contemplating this glorious orb, is its astonishing magnitude. This vast globe is found to be about 880,000 miles ir diameter, and, consequently, contains a mass of matter equal to thirteen hundred thousand globes of the size of the earth. Were its central parts placed adjacent to the surface of the earth, its circumference would reach two hundred thousand miles beyond the moon's orbit on every

side, filling a cubical space of 681,472,000,000,000,000 miles. If it would require 18,000 years to traverse every square mile on the earth's surface, at the rate of thirty miles a day, (see p. 9,) it would require more than two thousand millions of years to pass over every part of the sun's surface, at the same rate. Even at the rate of 90 miles a day it would require more than 80 years to go round its circumference. Of a body so vast in its dimensions, the human mind, with all its efforts, can form no adequate conception. It appears an extensive universe in itself; and, although no other body existed within the range of infinite space, this globe alone would afford a powerful demonstration of the omnipotence of the Creator. Were the sun a hollow sphere, surrounded by an external shell, and a luminous atmosphere; were this shell perforated with several hundreds of openings into the internal part; were a globe as large as the earth placed at its centre, and another globe as large as the moon, and at the same distance from the centre as the moon is from us, to revolve round the central globe,—it would present to the view a universe as splendid and glorious as that which now appears to the vulgar eye,-a universe as large and extensive as the whole creation was conceived to be, by our ancestors, in the infancy of astronomy. And who can tell, but that Almighty Being, who has not left a drop of water in a stagnant pool without its inhabitants, has arranged a number of worlds within the capacious circuit of the sun, and peopled them with intelligent beings in the first stages of their existence, to remain there for a certain period, till they be prepared for being transported to a more expansive sphere of existence? It is easy to conceive, that enjoyments as exquisite, and a range of thoughts as ample as have ever yet been experienced by the majority of the inhabitants of our world, might be afforded to myriads of beings thus placed at the centre of this magnificent luminary. This supposition is, at least, as probable as that of the celebrated Dr. Herschel, who supposed that the exterior surface of the sun was peopled with inhabitants. For, if this were the case, the range of view of these inhabitants would be confined within the limits of two or three hundred miles, and no celestial Jody, but an immense blaze of light, would be visible in their hemisphere. Such is the variety which appears among the works of God, and such is the diversity of situations in which sensitive beings are placed, that we dare not pronounce it impossible that both these suppositions may be realized.

Though the sun seems to perform a daily cir cuit around our globe, he may be said, in this respect, to be fixed and immoveable. This motion is not real, but only apparent, and is owing to the globe on which we are placed moving round its axis from west to east; just as the objects on 12

the bank of the river seem to move in a contrary direction, when we are sailing along its stream in a steamboat. The only motion which is found to exist in the sun is, a motion of rotation, like that of a globe or ball twirled round a pivot or axis, which is performed in the space of 25 days and 10 hours. This motion has been ascertained by means of a variety of dark spots which are discovered by the telescope on the sun's disk; which first appear on his eastern limb, and, after a period of about thirteen days, disappear on his western, and, after a similar period, reappear on his eastern edge. These spots are various, both in number, in magnitude, and in shape: sometimes 40 or 50, and sometimes only one or two are visible, and at other times the sun appears entirely without spots.Most of them have a very dark nucleus, or central part, surrounded by an umbra, or fainter shade. Some of the spots are as large as would cover the whole continent of Europe, Asia, and Africa, others have been observed of the size of the whole surface of the earth; and one was seen, in the year 1779, which was computed to be more than fifty thousand miles in diameter.

With regard to the nature of this globe-it appears highly probable, from the observations of Dr. Herschel, that the sun is a solid and opaque body, surrounded with luminous clouds which float in the solar atmosphere, and that the dark nucleus of the spots is the opaque body of the sun appearing through occasional openings in this atmosphere. The height of the atmosphere, he computes to be not less than 1843, nor more than 2765 miles, consisting of two regions; that nearest the sun being opaque, and probably resembling the clouds of our earth; the outermost emitting vast quantities of light, and forming the apparent luminous globe we behold.

The sun is the grand source of light and heat, both to the earth and to all the other planetary bodies. The heat he diffuses animates every part of our sublunary system, and all that variety of colouring which adorns the terrestrial landscape is produced by his rays. It has been lately discovered, that the rays of light, and the rays of heat, or caloric, are distinct from each other; for, it can be demonstrated, that some rays from the sun produce heat, which have no power of communicating light or coleur. The greatest heat is found in the red rays, the least in the violet rays; and in a space beyond the red rays, where there is no light, the temperature is greatest. The rays of the sun have also been found to produce different chymical effects. The white muriate of silver is blackened in the violet ray, in the space of 15 seconds, though the red will not produce the same effect in less than 20 minutes. Phosphorus is kindled in the vicinity of the red ray, and extinguished in the vicinity of the violet. The solar light, therefore, consists of three different orders of rays, one