To the missionary, and the directors of Bible and Missionary Societies, a minute and comprehensive knowledge of the science, and of all the facts connected with it, is essentially requisite; without which they would often grope in the dark, and spend their money in vain, and "their labour for that which doth not profit." They must be intimately acquainted with the extensive field of operation which lies before them, and with the physical, the moral, and the political state of the different tribes to which they intend to send the message of salvation; otherwise their exertions will be made at random, and their schemes be conducted without Judgment or discrimination. To attempt to direct the movements of Missionary Societies, without an intimate knowledge of this subject, is as foolish and absurd as it would be for a land surveyor to lay down plans for the improvement of a gentleman's estate, before he had surveyed the premises, and made himself acquainted with the objects upon them, in their various aspects, positions, and bearings. If all those who direct and support the operations of such societies, were familiarly acquainted with the different fields for missionary exertions, and with the peculiar state and character of the diversified tribes of the heathen world, so far as they are known, injudicious schemes might be frustrated before they are carried into effect, and the funds of such institutions preserved from being wasted to no purpose. In this view, it is the duty of every Christian, to mark the progress and results of the various geographical expeditions which are now going forward in quest of discoveries, in connexion with the moral and political movements which are presently agitating the nations: for every navigator who ploughs the ocean in search of new islands and continents, and every traveller who explores the interior of unknown countries, should be considered as so many pioneers, sent beforehand, by Divine Providence, to prepare the way for the labours of the missionary, and for the combined exertions of Christian benevolence.*

On this subject the author feels great pleasure

in referring his readers to a small volume, lately published, by James Douglas, Esq. of Cavers, enti. tled, "Hints on Missions,"-a work which deserves the attentive perusal, both of the philosopher, the politician, and the Christian, and particularly of the directors of Missionary Societies; and which is characterized by a spirit of enlightened philanthropy, and a condensation of thought, which has seldom been equalled in the discussion of such topics. It concentrates, as it were, into a focus, the light which has been reflected from hundreds of volumes; and the original hints it suggests claim the serious consideration of the superintendents of missionary schemes; without an attention to some of which, the beneficial effects resulting from such undertak. ings will be few and unimportant. Should this note happen to strike the eye of the worthy author, it is submitted, with all due deference, whether a more extensive circulation of the substance of this volume, in a less expensive form, and with a few modifications, to bring it within the range of thought

But even to every private Christian, geography is an interesting branch of study, without some knowledge of which his prayers and his Christian sympathies cannot be judiciously and extensively directed. We occasionally hear the ministers of religion, at the commencement of public worship. on the first day of the week, imploring the Divine blessing on their brethren throughout the Christian church, who are commencing the same exercises; and at the close of worship in the afternoon, that the same blessing may seal the instructions which have been delivered in all the churches of the saints; as if all the public religious services of the universal church were, at that moment, drawing to a close. This is all very well, so far as it goes: the expression of such benevolent wishes is highly becoming, and congenial to the spirit of Christianity. But a very slight acquaintance with geographical science will teach us, that, when we in this country are commencing the religious services of the first day of the week, our Christian brethren in the East Indies, who live under a very different meridian, have finished theirs; those in Russia, Poland, Greece, Palestine, and on the banks of the Caspian sea, have performed one-half of their public religious worship and instructions; and those in New Holland and Van Dieman's Land have retired to rest, at the close of their Sabbath. On the other hand, our friends in the West India islands and in Ame rica, at the close of our worship, are only about to commence the public instructions of the Christian Sabbath. If, then, it be submitted, that our prayers, in certain cases, ought to be specific, to have a reference to the particular cases and relations of certain classes of individuals, there can be no valid reason assigned, why they should not have a reference to the geographical positions of the different portions of the Christian church, as well as to those who live on or near our own meridian: that, for example, in the beginning of our public devotions, we might implore that the blessing of God may accompany the instructions which have been delivered in the eastern parts of the world; and at the close of worship, that the same agency may direct in the exercises of those in the western

hemisphere, who are about to enter on the sacred services of that day. On the same principle, we may perceive the absurdity of those "concerts" for prayer in different places at the

possessed by general readers, would not have a tendency to promote its benevolent objects.

The author does not seem to mean, that it is ab surd for Christians in every part of the earth to assemble on the same day in their respective places of devotion, to pray for a universel extension of Christianity. This objection would lie with equal weight against the Sabbath. His only objection appears to be against the supposition, that Christians, meeting in different parts of the earth at the same hour of the day, are praying in all places al the same moment.-American Editor,

some hour, which were lately proposed, and sitempted by a certain portion of the religious world. Even within the limits of Europe, this could not be attempted, with the prospect of Christians joining in devotion at one and the same time; for, when it is six o'clock in one part of Europe, it is eight at another, and five o'clock at a third place; much less could such a concert take place throughout Europe, Asia, and America. So that science, and a calm consideration of the nature and relations of things, may teach us to preserve our devotional fervour and zeal within the bounds of reason and propriety; and, at the same time, to direct our reflections, and our Christian sympathies, to take a wider range than that to which they are usually confined.

Besides the considerations now suggested, a serious contemplation of the physical objects and movements which this science exhibits, has a tendency to excite pious and reverential emotions. To contemplate this huge globe of land and water, flying with rapidity through the voids of space, conveying its vast population from one region to another at the rate of fifteen hundred thousand miles in a day, and whirling round its axis at the same time, to produce the constant succession of day and night,-to contemplate the lofty ridges of mountains that stretch around it in every direction; the flaming volcanoes; the roaring cataracts; the numerous rivers, incessantly rolling their watery treasures into the seas; the majestic ocean, and its unfathomable caverns; the vapours rising from its surface, and replenishing the springs and rivers; the avaanche hurling down the mountain's side with a noise like thunder; the luxuriant plains of the torrid zone; the rugged cliffs and icebergs of the polar regions; and thousands of other objects of diversified beauty and sublimity,-has an evident tendency to expand the conceptions of the human mind, to increase its sources of animal enjoyment, and to elevate the affections to that all-powerful Being who gave birth to all the sublimities of Nature, and who incessantly superintends all its movements.

In fine, from the numerous moral facts, which geography unfolds, we learn the vast depth and extent of that moral degradation into which the numan race has fallen-the ferocious tempers, and immoral practices, which are displayed in the regions of pagan idolatry-the horrid cruelties, the vile abominations, that are daily perpetrated under the sanction of what is termed religion-the wide extent of population, over which the prince of darkness sways his sceptre -the difficulties which require to be surmounted before the "gospel of salvation" can extend its full influence throughout the pagan worldand the vast energies which are requisite to accomplish this glorious event. All these portions of information are calculated to confirm

10

and illustrate the scriptural doctrine of the universal depravity of man-to exercise the faith of the Christian, on the promises of Jehovah, in reference to the conversion of the benighted nations-to rouse his sympathies towards his degraded brethren of mankind, to excite his intercession in their behalf, and to direct his benevolence and activity in devising and executing schemes for enlightening the people who are sitting "in darkness, and in the shadow of death."

GEOLOGY.

Another subject intimately related to the former, is the science of Geology.

This science has for its object, to investigate and describe the internal structure of the earth, the arrangement of the materials of which it is composed, the circumstances peculiar to its original formation, the different states under which it has existed, and the various changes which it appears to have undergone, since the Almighty created the substance of which it is composed. From a consideration of the vast quantity of materials contained in the internal structure of our globe, and of the limited extent to which men can carry their operations, when they attempt to penetrate into its bowels, it is obvious, that our knowledge of this subject must be very shallow and imperfect. The observations, however, which have been made on the structure of our globe during the last half century, and the conclusions deduced from them, are highly interesting, both to the philosopher and to the Christian. Before the facts, on which this branch of natural history is founded, were accurately ascertained, a variety of objections to the Mosaic history of the creation were started by certain skeptical philosophers, founded on partial and erroneous views of the real structure and economy of the earth. But it is now found, that the more accurately and minutely the system of nature is explored, the more distinctly do we perceive the harmony that subsists between the records of Revelation, and the operations of the Creator in the material world. If both be admitted as the effects of the agency of the same Almighty and Eternal Being, they must, in the nature of things, completely harmonize, and can never be repugnant to each other-whether we be capable, in every instance, of perceiving their complete coincidence, or not. If any facts could be produced in the visible creation which directly contradict the records of the Bible, it would form a proof, that the oracles which we hold as divine were not dictated by the Creator and Governor of the universe. But, although some garbled facts have been triumphantly exhibited in this view, it is now ascer tained, from the discoveries which have been lately made in relation to the structure and formation of the earth, that the truth of the facts de

tailed in sacred history rests on a solid and immutable basis; and that the Supreme Intelligence who arranged the fabric of heaven and earth, and he alone, communicated to the inspired writers the doctrines and the facts they have recorded; and we have reason to believe, that, as geologists proceed in their researches and investigations, still more sensible proofs of the authenticity of Revelation will be brought to light.

Geology has, of late, become an interesting object of inquiry to the student of general science, and is now prosecuted with ardour by many distinguished philosophers. The observations which have been made in various parts of the world, by late navigators; the facts which have been ascertained by Pallas, Saussure, De Luc, Humboldt, and other intelligent travellers; and the discoveries which have been brought to light by modern chymists and mineralogists, have all conspired to facilitate geological inquiries, to render them more enlightened and satisfactory, and to prepare the way for future ages establishing a rational, scriptural, and substantial theory of the earth. The man who engages in such inquiries has always at hand a source of rational investigation and enjoyment. The ground on which he treads the aspect of the surrounding country-the mines, the caves, and the quarries which he explores-every new country in which he travels, every mountain he climbs, and every new surface of the earth that is laid open to his inspection, offer to him novel and interesting stores of information. On descending into mines, we are not only gratified by displays of human in genuity, but we also acquire views of the strata of the earth, and of the revolutions it has undergone since the period of its formation. Our research es on the surface of the earth, amidst abrupt precipices and lofty mountains, introduce us to the grandest and most sublime works of the Creator, and present to our view the effects of stupendous forces, which have overturned mountains, and rent the foundations of nature. "In the midst of such scenes, the geologist feels his mind invigorated; the magnitude of the appearances before him extinguishes all the little and contracted notions he may have formed in the closet; and he learns, that it is only by visiting and studying those stupendous works, that he can form an adequate conception of the great relations of the crust of the globe, and of its mode of formation."*

The upper crust, or surface of the earth, is found to be composed of different strata, or beds placed one above another. These strata, or layers, are very much mixed, and their direction, matter, thickness, and relative position, vary considerably in different places. These strata are divided into seven classes, as follows:Dlack earth, clay, sandy earth, marl, bog, chalk,

•Edinburgh Encyclop Art. Mineralogy.

and scabeous or stony earth. The surface of the globe, considered in relation to its inequali ties, is divided into highland, lowland, and the bottom of the sea. Highland comprises Alpine land, composed of mountain groups, or series of mountain chains: lowland comprises those extensive flat tracts which are almost entirely destitute of small mountain groups. To the bottom of the sea belong the flat, rocky bottom, shoals, reefs, and islands.

At first sight, the solid mass of the earth appears to be a confused assemblage of rocky masses, piled on each other without regularity or order, where none of those admirable displays of skill and contrivance are to be observed, which so powerfully excite attention in the structure of animals and vegetables. But, on a nearer and more intimate view, a variety of beautiful arrangements has been traced by the industry of geologists, and the light of modern discoveries; by which they have been enabled to classify these apparent irregularities of nature. The materials of which the solid crust of the earth is composed, have been arranged into the four following classes:-1. Those rocks which contain neither any animal nor vegetable remains themselves, nor are intermixed with rocks which do contain them, and are therefore termed primitive, or primary rocks; the period of whose formation is considered as antecedent to that of the creation of organic beings. These are granite, gneiss, mica slate, and clay slate, which occur abundantly in all regions of the globe, with quartz rock, serpentine, granular limestone, &c. which occur more sparingly. 2. Rocks containing organic remains, or generally associated with other rocks in which such substances are found, and which, as having been formed posterior to the existence of organized beings, are termed secondary. These are greywacke, sandstone, limestone, and gypsum of various kinds, slate clay, with certain species of trap, and they are found lying above the primary or older rocks. 3. Above these secondary rocks, beds of gravel, sand, earth, and moss are found, which have been termed alluvial rocks or for mations. This class comprehends those rocky substances formed from previously existing rocks, of which the materials have been broken down by the agency of water and air; they are therefore generally loose in their texture, and are never covered with any real solid and rocky secondary strata. 4. Volcanic rocks; under which class are comprehended all those rocks, beds of lava, scoriæ, and other matter, thrown out at certain points of the earth's surface by the action of subterraneous fire.

"The phenomena of geology show, that the original formation of the rocks has been accompanied, in nearly all its stages, by a process of waste, decay, and recomposition. The rocks as they were successively deposited, were acted

upon by air and water, heat, &c. broken into fragments, or worn down into grains, out of which new strata were formed. Even the newer secondary rocks, since their consolidation, have been subject to great changes, of which very distinct monuments remain. Thus, we have single mountains which, from their structure, can be considered only as remnants of great formations, or of great continents no longer in existence. Mount Meisner, in Hesse, six miles long and three broad, rises about 1800 feet above its base, and 2100 above the sea, overtopping all the neighbouring hills from 40 to 50 miles round. The lowest part of the mountain consists of the same shell, limestone, and sandstone, which exist in the adjacent country. Above these are, first, a bed of sand, then a bed of fossil wood, 100 feet thick at some points, and the whole is covered by a mass of basalt, 500 feet in height. On considering these facts, it is impossible to avoid concluding, that this mountain which now overtops the neighbouring country, occupied at one time, the bottom of a cavity in the midst of higher lands. The vast mass of fossil wood could not all have grown there, but must have been transported by water from a more elevated surface, and lodged in what was then a hollow. The basalt which covers the wood must also have flowed in a current from a higher site; but the soil over which both the wood and the basalt passed, has been swept away leaving this mountain as a solitary memorial to attest its existence. Thus, also, on the side of Mount Jura next the Alps, where no other mountain interposes, there are found vast blocks of granite (some of 1000 cubic yards) at the height of more than 2000 feet above the lake of Geneva. These blocks are foreign to the rocks among which they lie, and have evidently come from the opposite chain of the Alps; but the land which constituted the inclined plane over which they were rolled or transported, has been worn away, and the valley of lower Switzerland, with its lakes, now occupies its place. Transported masses of primitive rocks, of the same description, are found scattered over the north of Germany, which Van Buch ascertained by their characters to belong to the mountains of Scandinavia; and which, therefore, carry us back to a period when an elevated continent, occupying the basin of the Baltic, connected Saxony with Norway.-Supp. to Ency. Brit. vol. 6.

The production of a bed for vegetation is effected by the decomposition of rocks. This decomposition is effected by the expansion of water in the pores or fissures of rocks, by heat or congelation by the solvent power of moisture-and y electricity, which is known to be a powerful agent of decomposition. As soon as the rock begins to be softened, the seeds of lichens, which are constantly floating in the air, make it their

resting place. Their generations occupy it till a finely divided earth is formed, which becomes capable of supporting mosses and heath; acted upon by light and heat, these plants imbibe the dew, and convert constituent parts of the air into nourishment. Their death and decay afford food for a more perfect species of vegetable, and, at length, a mould is formed, in which even the trees of the forest can fix their roots, and which is capable of rewarding the labours of the cultivator. The decomposition of rocks tends to the renovation of soils, as well as their cultivation. Finely divided matter is carried by rivers from the higher districts to the low countries, and alluvial lands are usually extremely fertile. By these operations, the quantity of habitable surface is constantly increased; precipitous cliffs are generally made gentle slopes, lakes are filled up, and islands are formed at the mouths of great rivers; so that as the world grows older, its capacity for containing an increased number of inhabitants is gradually enlarging.

Of all the inemorials of the past history of our globe, the most interesting are those myriads of remains of organized bodies which exist in the interior of its outer crusts. In these, we find traces of innumerable orders of beings existing under different circumstances, succeeding one another at distant epochs, and varying through multiplied changes of form. "If we examine the secondary rocks, beginning with the most ancient, the first organic remains which present themselves, are those of aquatic plants and large reeds, but of species different from ours. To these succeed madrepores, encrenities, and other aquatic zoophites, living beings of the simplest forms, which remain attached to one spot, and partake, in some degree, of the nature of vegetables. Posterior to these, are ammonites, and other mollusci, still very simple in their forms, and entirely different from any animals now known. After these, some fishes appear; and plants, consisting of bamboos and ferns, increase, but still different from those which exist. In the next period, along with an increasing number of extinct species of shells and fishes, we meet with amphibious and viviparous quadrupeds, such as crocodiles and tortoises, and some reptiles, as serpents, which show that dry land now existed. As we approach the newest of the solid rock formations, we find lamantins, phocæ, and other cetaceous and mammiferous sea animals, with some birds. And in the newest of these formations, we find the remains of herbiferous land animals of extinct species, the paleotherium, anaplotherium, &c. and of birds, with some fresh water shells. In the lowest beds of loose soil, and in peat bogs, are found the remains of the elephant, rhinoceros, hippopotamus, elk, &c. of different species from those which now exist, but belonging to the same genera. Lastly, the bones of the species which are apparently the same

with tnose now existing alive, are never found except in the very latest alluvial depositions, or those which are either formed in the sides of rivers, the bottoms of ancient lakes and marshes now dried up, in peat beds, in the fissures and caverns of certain rocks, or at small depths below the present surface, in places where they may have been overwhelmed by debris, or even buried by man. Human bones are never found except among those of animal species now living, and in situations which show, that they have been, comparatively speaking, recently deposited."-Supp. to Ency. Brit. vol. 6.

More than thirty different species of animals have been found imbedded in the secondary strata-no living examples of which are now to be found in any quarter of the globe. Among the most remarkable of these are the following.

1. The Mammoth, which bears a certain resemblance to the Elephant, but is much larger, and differs considerably in the size and form of the tusks, jaws, and grinders. The fossil remains of this animal are more abundant in Siberia than in other countries; there being scarcely a spot, from the river Don to Kamtschatka, in which they have not been found. Not only single bones and perfect skeletons of this animal are frequently to be met with; but, in a late instance, the whole animal was found preserved in ice. This animal was discovered on the banks of the frozen ocean, near the mouth of the river Jena, in 1799; and in 1805, Mr. Adams got it conveyed over a space of 7000 miles to Petersburgh, where it is deposited in the Museum. The flesh, skin, and hair were completely preserved, and even the eyes were entire. It was provided with a long mane, and the body was covered with hair. This hair was of different qualities. There were stiff black bristles from 12 to 15 inches long, and these belonged to the tail, mane, and ears. Other bristles were from 9 to 10 inches long, and of a brown colour; and besides these, there was a coarse wool, from 3 to 5 inches long, of a pale yellow colour. This mammoth was a male: it measured 9 feet 4 inches in height, and was 16 feet 4 inches long without including the tusks. The tusks, measuring along the curve, are 9 feet 6 inches; and the two together weigh 360 lbs. avoirdupois. The head alone without the tusks, weighs 414 lbs. avoirdupois. The remains of this animal have been found likewise in Iceland, Norway, Scotland, England, and in many places through the continent onwards to the Arctic ocean.

2. The Megatherium. A complete skeleton of this colossal species was found in diluvial soil, near Buenos Ayres, and sent to Madrid. The specimen is 14 feet long, and 7 Spanish feet in height.

3. The great Mastodon of the Ohio. This species appears to have been as tall as the elephant, but with longer and thicker limbs. It had

tusks like the elephant, and appears to have li ed on roots. Its remains abound in America, particularly on the banks of the Ohio.

4. The Tapir, which also abounds in America. The one named Gigantic Tapir, is about 18 feet long, and 12 feet high.

5. The Irish Elk, or Elk of the Isle of Man. This gigantic species, now apparently extinct, occurs in a fossil state, in Ireland, Isle of Man, England, Germany, and France. The most perfect specimen of this species, which was found in the Isle of Man, may be seen in the Museum of the University of Edinburgh. It is 6 feet high, 9 feet long, and in height to the tip of the right horn, 9 feet 7 inches. An engraving of this skeleton may be seen in vol. 6 of Supp. to Ency. Brit.

From a consideration of the phenomena above described, geologists have been led to conclude, "that rocks now buried at a great depth, constituted, at one time, the surface of continents, and the seat of organic life; and that many orders of beings have been called into existence, and afterwards destroyed by great revolutions, which introduced new classes of mineral deposits, accompanied with new tribes of organic beings." It has also been concluded by some, that the appearance of man upon the face of the globe, is, geologically speaking, a very recent event; before which the earth had been inhabited thousands of years by various families of plants and tribes of animals, which had been destroyed and renewed in a long series of successions. Whether these conclusions be necessary inferences from the phenomena of organic remains and other geological facts, I shall not, at present, stop to inquire. It is sufficient for the Christian philosopher to show, that though they should be admit ted in their full extent, they are not inconsistent with the records of sacred history, as some divines have been disposed to maintain. Though it could be proved to a demonstration, that the materials of which the present system of our globe is composed, have existed for millions of years, it would not, in the least, invalidate the Mosaic account of the arrangement of our world. For Moses no where affirms, that the materials or substance of the earth were created, or brought from nothing into existence, at the period when his history commences. His language, on the contrary, evidently implies, that the materials which enter into the constitution of our globe did exist, at the epoch at which he commences his narration. "The earth was without form, and void; and darkness was upon the face of the deep." This passage plainly implies the following things-1. That the original atoms, or materials, out of which the terraqueous globe in its present state, was formed, were then in existence, or had been previously created. How long they had been in existence is not stated. We may suppose them to have existed for