gain a more comprehensive view of that illimitable power which organized the universe, but will find his sources of enjoyment continually increased, and will feel an ardent desire after that glorious world, where the veil which now hides from our sight some of the grandest manifestations of Deity will be withdrawn, and the wonders of Omnipotence be displayed in all their splendour and perfection.

In conformity with these sentiments, we find the inspired writers, in numerous instances, calling our attention to the wonders of creating power and wisdom. In one of the first speeches in which the Almighty is introduced as addressing the sons of men, and the longest one in the Bible,* our attention is exclusively directed to the subjects of Natural History; -the whole address having a reference to the economy of Divine Wisdom in the arrangement of the world at its first creation-the wonders of the ocean, and of light and darkness-the phenomena of thunder and lightning, rain, hail, snow, frost, and other meteors in the atmosphere-the intellectual faculties of man, and the economy and instincts of quadrupeds, birds, fishes, and other tribes of animated existence. Indeed, the greater part of the sublime descriptions contained in the book of Job has a direct reference to the agency of God in the material creation, and to the course of his providence in relation to the different characters of men; and the reasonings of the different speakers in that sacred drama proceed on the supposition that their auditors were intimately acquainted with the varied appearances of nature, and their tendency to exhibit the character and perfections of the Omnipotent Creator. We find the Psalmist, in the 104th Psalm, employed in a devout description of similar objects, from the contemplation of which his mind is raised to adoring views of their Almighty Author-and, from the whole of his survey, he deduces the following conclusions:-"How manifold are thy works, O Lord! In wisdom thou hast made them all! The earth is full of thy riches; so is this great and wide sea, wherein are things creeping innumerable, both small and great beasts. The glory of the Lord shall endure for ever; the Lord shall rejoice in all his works. I will sing unto the Lord as long as I live; I will sing praises to my God, while I have my being."

Job, chap. xxxv!li. xxxix. xl. xli.

The glory of the Lord, in this passage, denotes the display of his perfections in the material universe: and the declaration of the inspired writer plainly intimates, that this display will continue for ever, and will remain as an object of unceasing contemplation to all intelligences, and as an eternal monument of his power and wisdom. For, although the earth and the aerial heavens will be changed at the close of that dispensation of Providence which respects our word, yet the general frame of the universe, in its other parts, will remain substantially the same; and not only so, but will in all probability be perpetually increasing in magnitude and grandeur. And the change which will be effected in respect

But in order to enter into the spirit of such sublime reflections, we must not content ourselves with a superficial and cursory view of the objects and operations of nature, we must not think it sufficient to acquiesce in such vague proposi tions as these-" The glory of God is seen in every blade of grass, and every drop of water; all nature is full of wonders, from the dust of the earth to the stars of the firmament." We must study the works of creation with ardour, survey them with minute attention, and endeavour to acquire a specific and comprehensive knowledge of the Creator's designs. We must endeavour to acquire a knowledge of the particular modes, circumstances, contexture, configurations, adaptations, structure, functions, and relations of those objects in which benevolence and design conspicuously appear-in the animal and the vegetable world, in the ocean, the atmosphere, and the heavens; that the mind may be enabled to draw the conclusion with full conviction and intelligence-" In wisdom thou hast made them all." The pointed interrogatories which Jehovah addressed to Job, evidently imply, that Job had previously acquired an intimate acquaintance with the works of nature. It seems to be taken for granted, as a matter of course, that he made himself acquainted with the general range of facts in the visible creation; and the intention of the several questions presented to his consideration evidently was to impress him with a sense of his own impotency, and to lead him to the investigation of the wonders of Creating Power which he had formerly overlooked. The conclusion which the Psalmist draws respecting the Wisdom displayed throughout all the works of God, plainly intimates, that he had made the different parts of nature the subject of minute examination, and of deep reflection; otherwise he could not have rationally deduced his conclusion, or felt those emotions which Elled his mind with the pious rapture so beautifully expressed in that hymn of praise

to the Creator of the world.

We have, therefore, reason to believe, from these and other instances, that pious men," in the days of old," were much more accustomed than modern Christians to contemplate and admire the visible works of the Lord-and it is surely much to be regretted, that we who enjoy so many superior means of information, and who have access to the brilliant discoveries of later and more enlightened times, should manifest so much disregard to "the works of Jehovah and the operations of his hands." To enable the common mass of Christians to enter into the

spirit of this delightful study and Christian duty, should, therefore, be one object of those periodical and other religious works which are put into their hands; so that they may be enabled, with to the terraqueous globe and its appendages will be such that Jehovah will have reason to " rejoice" in this as well as in all his other works.

In order to form an accurate conception of the relative positions of objects on the surface of the earth, and to enter with intelligence on the study of this subject, it is requisite, first of all, to have an accurate idea of its figure and magnitude. For a long series of ages it was supposed, by the bulk of mankind, that the surface of the earth was nearly a plane, indefinitely extended, and bounded on all sides by the sky. Lactantius, and several of the fathers of the Christian church, strenuously argued that the earth was extended infinitely downwards, and established upon several foundations. The ancient philosopher Heraclitus is said to have believed that the earth was of the shape of a skiff or canoe, very much hollowed; and the philo sopher Leucippus supposed it to be of the form of a cylinder or a drum. It is only within the period of the last three hundred years that the true figure of the earth has been accurately ascertained. This figure is now found to be that of an oblate spheroid, nearly approaching to the shape of a globe or sphere. To have asserted this opinion several ages ago would have been considered as a heresy in religion, and would have subjected its abettors to the anathemas of the church, and even to the peril of their lives. Historians inform us that the learned Spigelius, Bishop of Upsal, in Sweden, suffered martyrdom at the stake, in defence of the doctrine of the Antipodes; and we know that, for asserting the motion of the earth, the celebrated philosopher Galileo was immured in a dungeon, and condemned by an assembly of cardinals to all the horrors of perpetual imprison ment. The doctrine ne maintained, and which is now universally received by every one acquainted with the subject, was declared by those arrogant ecclesiastics to be "a proposition absurd in its very nature, false in philosophy, beretical in religion, and contrary to the Holy Scriptures." Such are some of the horrible

A select list of popular works on Natural History, and the other sciences noticed in the following sketches, will be found in the appendix.

and pernicious consequences which flow from ignorance of the phenomena of nature, and of those laws by which the Almighty governs the universe he has formed; and which prove it to be a Christian duty for every rational being to study the order and economy of the visible world.

That the earth is nearly of a globular figure, is proved by the following considerations:-1. When we stand on the seashore, while the sea is perfectly calm, we perceive that the surface of the water is not quite plain, but convex or rounded; and if we are on one side of an arm of the sea, as the Frith of Forth, and, with our eyes near the water, look towards the opposite coast, we shall plainly see the water elevated between our eyes and the opposite shore, so as to prevent our seeing the land near the edge of the water. The same experiment may be made on any portion of still water, of a mile or two in extent, when its convexity will be perceived by the eye. A little boat, for instance, may be perceived by a man who is any height above the water, but if he stoops down, and lays his eye near the surface, he will find that the fluid appears to rise, and intercept the view of the boat. 2. If we take our station on the sea

shore, and view the ships leaving the coast, in any direction-as they retire from our view, we may perceive the masts and rigging of the vessels when the hulls are out of sight, and, as it were, sunk in the water. On the other hand, when a ship is approaching the shore, the first part of her that is seen is the topmast; as she approaches nearer, the sails become visible, and last of all, the hull comes gradually into view.f The reason of such appearances obviously is, that the round or convex surface of the water interposes between our eye and the body of the ship, when she has reached a certain distance, while, at the same time, the sails and topmast, from their greater elevation, may be still in view. To the same cause it is owing, that the higher the eye is placed, the more extensive is the prospect; and hence it is common for sailors to climb to the tops of masts, in order to discover land or ships at a distance. The contrary of ali this would take place, if the earth and waters were an extended plane. When a ship came within view, the hull would first make its appearance, of all, the topmast. These considerations, being the largest object, next the sails, and, last which hold true in all parts of the world, prove to a certainty, that the mass of the ocean is of a globular form: and if the ocean be a portion of a sphere, it follows that the land also is of the same general figure; for no portion of the earth's surface is elevated above four or five + In order to make such observations to advantage, the observer's eye should be as near as possible on a level with the sea, and he should use a telescope to enable him to perceive more distinctly the upper part of the vessel.

miles above the level of the ocean. 3. That the earth is round from north to south, appears from the following circumstance :-When we travel a considerable distance from north to south, or from south to north, a number of new stars successively appear in the heavens, in the quarter to which we are advancing, and many of those in the opposite quarter gradually disappear, which would not happen if the earth were a plane in that direction. 4. That the earth is round from east to west, appears from actual experiment; for many navigators, by sailing in a westerly direction, have gone quite round it, from east to west; and were it not for the frozen seas within the polar regions, which interrupt navigation in those directions, it would, long ere now, have been circumnavigated from north to south. 5. All those proofs are confirmed and illustrated by eclipses of the moon, which present an ocular demonstration of the earth's rotundity. An eclipse of the moon is caused by the intervention of the body of the earth between the sun and moon; in which case the shadow of the earth falls upon the moon. This shadow is found, in all cases, and in every position of the earth, to be of a circular figure; which incontrovertibly proves, that the whole mass of land and water, of which the earth is composed, is nearly of a globular form. The mountains and vales which diversify its surface detract little or nothing from its globular shape; for they bear no more proportion to its whole bulk than a few grains of sand to a common terrestrial globe; the highest mountains on its surface being little more than the two-thousandth part of its diameter. Some of the mountains on the surface of the moon are higher than those on the earth, and yet that body appears, both to the naked eye and through telescopes, of a spherical figure.

To some readers, the discovery of the true figure of the earth may appear as a matter of very trivial importance in religion. I hesitate not, however, to affirm that it constitutes a most important fact in the history of Divine Providence. Had not this discovery been made, it is probable that the vast continent of America might yet have remained undiscovered; for, Columbus, who first discovered that new world, had learned, contrary to the general opinion of the times, that the earth was of a spherical figure; and, from the maps then existing, he began to conjecture, that the nearest way of sailing to the East Indies would be to sail westward. And although he missed the object of his research, he was the means of laying open to view a vast and unknown region of the earth, destined, in due time, to receive from the Eastern world the blessings of knowledge, civilization, and religion. On the knowledge of the spherical figure of the earth, the art of navigation in a great measure depends; and all the voyages of discovery, which have been made

in later years, were undertaken in consequence of the knowledge of this fact. Had manking remained unacquainted with this discovery, the circumnavigation of the globe would never have been attempted-vast portions of the habituble world would have remained unknown and unexplored-no regular intercourse would have been maintained between the various tribes of the human race; and, consequently, the blessings of Divine Revelation could never have been communicated to the greater part of the Gentile world. Besides, the knowledge of the true figure and magnitude of our sublunary world forms the groundwork of all the sublime discoveries which have hitherto been made in the regions of the firmament. For its diameter forms the base line of those triangles by which the distances and magnitudes of the celestial globes have been determined; without a knowledge of the extent of which, the important results which have been deduced respecting the system of the universe could not have been ascertained, and, consequently, our views of the grandeur and omnipotence of the Deity, and of the magnificence and extent of his dominions, must have been much more circumscribed than they now Such is the intimate connexion that subsists between every part of the chain of Divine dispensations, that if any one link had been either broken or dissolved, the state of things, in the moral and intellectual world, would have been very different from what it now is; and the plans of Providence, for accomplishing the renovation and improvement of mankind, would have been either partially or totally frustrated.

are.

With regard to the magnitude of the earthI have already stated the mode by which we may acquire the most accurate and comprehensive conception of this particular, in the course of the illustrations which were given of the omnipotence of Deity, (pp. 9-11.) It is necessary here only to remark-that, according to the latest computations, the diameter of the earth is about 7,930 miles, and its circumference 24,912 miles; and consequently, the whole surface of the land and water it contains comprehends an area of 197,552,160 miles. The proportion of land and water on its surface cannot be very accurately ascertained; but it is quite evident, from an inspection of a map of the world, that the water occupies at least two-thirds of its surface, and, of course, the land cannot occupy more than one-third. Supposing it to be only one-fourth of the earth's surface, it will contain 49,387,040 square miles, which is considerably more than what is stated in most of our late systems of geography; in some of which the extent of the land is rated at 39 millions, and in others so low as 30 millions of square miles-the former of which statements being less than one-fifth, and the latter less than onesixth of the surface of the globe. But it is

quite obvious that the extent of the land cannot be less than one-fourth of the area of the globe, and must, therefore, comprehend at least 50 millions of square miles. And if a large arctic continent, eleven hundred leagues in length, exist around the North Pole, as some French philosophers infer from Captain Parry's late discoveries-the quantity of land on the terraqueous globe will be much greater than what has been now stated.

GENERAL DIVISIONS OF THE EARTH.The surface of the earth is divided, from north to south, by two bands of earth, and two of water. The first band of earth is the ancient or Easteru Continent, comprehending Europe, Asia, and Africa; the greatest length of which is found to be in a line beginning on the east point of the northern part of Tartary, and extending from thence to the Cape of Good Hope, which measures about 10,000 miles, in a direction nearly from north-east to south-west; but if measured according to the meridians, or from north to south, it extends only 7,500 miles, from the northernmost cape in Lapland to the Cape of Good Hope. This vast body of land contains about 36 millions of square miles, forming nearly one-fifth of the whole surface of the globe. The other band of earth is what is commonly called the New Continent, which comprehends North and South America. Its greatest length lies in a line beginning at the mouth of the river Plata, passing through the island of Jamaica, and terminating beyond Hudson's Bay; and it measures about 8.000 miles. This body of land contains about 14 millions of square miles, or somewhat more than a third of the old continent.

It may not be improper here to remark, that the two lines now mentioned, which measure the greatest lengths of the two continents, divide them into two equal parts, so that an equal portion of land lies on each side of these lines, and that each of these lines has an inclination of about 30 degrees to the equator, but in opposite directions; that of the old continent extending from the north-east to the south-west, and that of the new continent from the north-west to the south-east; and that they both terminate at the same degree of northern and southern latitude. It may also be noticed, that the old and new continents are almost opposite to each other, and that the old is more extensive to the north of the equator, and the new more extensive to the south. The centre of the old continent is in the 17th degree of north latitude, and the centre of the new in the 17th degree of south latitude; so that they seem to be made to counterbalance each other, in order to preserve the equability of the diurnal rotation of the earth. There is also a singular connexion between the two continents, namely, that if they were divided into

See Monthly Magazine, April, 1923, p. 259.

9

two parts, all four would be surrounded by the sea, were it not for the two small necks of land called the isthmuses of Suez and Panama.t

Between the two continents now mentioned, iie two immense bands of water, termed the Pacific and the Atlantic oceans, whose greatest length is likewise in a direction from north to south.

Besides the two bands of earth to which I have adverted, many extensive portions of lard are dispersed through the ocean, which covers the remaining part of the earth's surface; particularly the extensive regions of New Holland, which occupy a space nearly as large as the whole of Europe, and the arctic continent, which probably exists within the northern polar regions, and which some French writers propose to designate by the name of Boreasia, is in all probability, of equal extent. There are also the extensive islands of New Guinea, Borneo, Madagascar, Sumatra, Japan, Great Britain, New Zealand, Ceylon, Iceland, Cuba, Java, and thousands of others, of different dimensions, scattered through the Pacific, the Indian, and the Atlantic oceans, and which form a very considerable portion of the habitable regions of the globe.

GENERAL FEATURES OF THE EARTH'S SURFACE.-In taking a general survey of the external features of the earth, the most prominent objects that strike the eye are those huge elevations which rise above the level of its general surface, termed HILLS AND MOUNTAINS. These are distributed, in various forms and sizes, through every portion of the continents and islands; and, running into immense chains, form a sort of connecting band to the other portion of the earth's surface. The largest mountains are generally formed into immense chains, which extend, in nearly the same direction, for several hundreds, and even thousands of miles. It has been observed by some philosophers, that the most lofty mountains form two immense ridges, or belts, which, with some interruptions, extend around the whole globe, in nearly the same direction. One of these ridges lies between the 45th and 55th degree of north latitude. Beginning on the western shores of France and Spain, it extends eastward, including the Alps and the Pyrenees, in Europe, the Uralian and Altaic mountains, in Asia-extending from thence to the shores of Kamschatka, and after a short interruption from the sea, they rise again on the western coast of America, and terminate at Canada, near the eastern shore. It is supposed that the chain is continued completely round the globe, through the space that is covered by the Atlantic ocean, and that the Azores, and other islands in that direction, are the only summits that are visible, till we come to the British isles, The other ridge runs along the Southern hemi

See Buffon's Natural History, vol. 1.

sphere, between the 50th and 30th degrees of south latitude, of which detached portions are found in the mountains of Tucuman, and of Paraguay, in South America,-of Monomotapa and Caffraria, in Africa; in New Holland, New Caledonia, the New Hebrides, the Friendly, the Society, and other islands in the Pacific ocean. From these ridges flows a variety of ramifications, in both hemispheres, towards the Equator, and the Poles, which altogether present a magnificent scenery, which diversifies and enlivens the surface of our globe.

The highest mountains in the world, according to some late accounts published in the "Transactions of the Asiatic Society," are the Himalaya chain, north of Bengal, on the borders of Thibet. The highest mountain in this range is stated to be about 27,000 feet, or a little more than five miles, in perpendicular height, and is visible at the distance of 230 miles. Nineteen different mountains in this chain are stated to be above four miles in perpendicular elevation. Next to the Himalayas, are the Andes, in South America, which extend more than 4000 miles in length, from the province of Quito to the straits of Magellan. The highest summit of the Andes is Chimborazo, which is said to be 20,600 feet, or nearly four miles, above the level of the sea. The highest mountains in Europe, are the Alps, which run through Switzerland and the north of Italy, the Pyrenees, which separate France from Spain, and the Dofrafeld, which divide Norway from Sweden. The most elevated ridges in Asia, are Mount Taurus, Imaus, Caucasus, Ararat, the Uralian, Altaian, and the mountains of Japan-in Africa, Mount Atlas, and the mountains of the Moon. Some of the mountains in these ranges are found to contain immense caverns or perforations, of more than two miles in circumference, reaching from their summits to an immeasurable depth into the bowels of the earth. From these dreadful openings are frequently thrown up, to an immense height, torrents of fire and smoke, rivers of melted metals, clouds of ashes and cinders, and sometimes red-hot stones and enormous rocks, to the distance of several miles, accompanied with thunders, lightnings, darkness, and horrid subterraneous sounds-producing the most terrible devastations through all the surrounding districts. The most noted mountains of this kind in Europe, are mount Hecla, in Iceland; Etna, in Sicily; and Vesuvius, near the city of Naples, in Italy. Numbers of volcanoes are also to be found in South America, in Africa, in the islands of the Indian ocean, and in the Empire of Japan.*

We who live in Great Britain, where the highest mountain is little more than three-quarters of a mile in perpendicular elevation, can

A more particular description of the phenomena of these terrific objects will be found in Chap. iv. Sect. 2.

form no adequate idea of the magnificence and awful sublimity of the mountain scenery in some of the countries now mentioned; especially when the volcano is belching forth its flames with a raging noise, and spreading terror and desolation around its base. From the tops of the loffy ridges of the Andes, the most grand and novel scenes sometimes burst upon the eye of the astonished traveller. He beholds the upper surface of the clouds far below him, covering the subjacent plain, and surrounding, like a vast sea, the foot of the mountain; while the place on which he stands appears like an island in the midst of the ocean. He sees the lightnings issuing from the clouds, and hears the noise of the tempest, and the thunders rolling far beneath his feet, while all is serene around him, and the blue vault of heaven appears without a cloud. At other times, he contemplates the most sublime and extensive prospects-mountains ranged around him, covered with eternal snows, and surrounding, like a vast amphitheatre, the plains below-rivers winding from their sources towards the ocean-cataracts dashing headlong over tremendous cliffs-enormous rocks detached from their bases, and rolling down the declivity of the mountains with a noise louder than thunderfrightful precipices impending over his headunfathomable caverns yawning from below-and the distant volcano sending forth its bellowings, with its top enveloped in the fire and smoke.Those who have studied nature on a grand scale, have always been struck with admiration and astonishment at the sublime and awful exhibition of wonders which mountainous regions exhibit and, perhaps, there is no terrestrial scene which presents, at one view, so many objects of overpowering magnitude and grandeur, and which inspires the mind with so impressive an idea of the power of that Almighty Being, who "weigheth the mountains in scales, and taketh up the isles as a very little thing."

THE OCEAN.-The ocean surrounds the earth on all sides, and penetrates into the interior parts of different countries; sometimes by large openings, and frequently by small straits. Could the eye take in this immense sheet of waters at one view, it would appear the most august object under the whole heavens. It occupies a space on the surface of the globe at least three times greater than that which is occupied by the land; comprehending an extent of 148 millions of square miles. Though the ocean, strictly speaking, is but one immense body of waters extending in different directions, yet different names have been appropriated to different portions of its surface. That portion of its waters which rolls between the western coast of America and the eastern of Asia, is called the Pacific ocean; and that portion which separates Europe and Africa from America, the Atlantic ocean. Other portions are