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the Greeks. The horses were covered with iron pounds, and inhabits unfrequented coasts in the scales. At the ends of the pole, lances were fas-arctic seas. The head is oval, short, small, and tened, and at the sides and below were scythes. flat in front: the flat portion of the face is set with These chariots were driven into the ranks of the very strong bristles, which are pellucid, about a enemy. The Greeks, besides, used two-wheeled span in length, and twisted, the orifices of the ears chariots, each containing two persons, one of are very small, but the sense of smelling seems to whom drove, while the other threw spears. The be exceedingly acute; the incisors are four in the chariots were open behind and had low wheels. upper jaw, but the two middle ones are shed as The Romans used them early. In the twelve the animal advances in age; the upper canines are tables (q. v.) the arcera is mentioned. From the large, elephant-like tusks, directed downwards; time of Roger Bacon (in the thirteenth century) to the feet are very short, and the toes are connected our days, many trials of locomotive wagons have by a membrane, and armed with strong nails; been made, of which the steam wagon, lately the tail is short. Formerly, vast herds of these brought to such perfection, is the most important. animals frequented the shores of the islands beThe wind has also been frequently used to propel tween Northern Asia and America, Davis's straits wagons. Simon Stevin of Bruges, invented a and Hudson's bay, in latitude 62 degrees, and even sailing wagon for twenty-eight persons, which, on as far south as the Magdalen islands, in the gulf even ground is said to have travelled fourteen of St. Lawrence, between latitude 47 and 48 deDutch leagues in two hours! Mr. Slater, an Eng-grees; but at present, the walrus is nowhere lishman travelled in a sailing wagon from Alexan-numerous, except on the icy shores of Spitsbergen dria to Bassora. and the remotest northern coasts of America. Voyages were once made to procure its tusks and oil, and it is said that 1200 or 1500 individuals have been sometimes killed at once out of a herd.

WAKE OF A SHIP. The smooth water astern when she is under sail. This shows the way she has gone in the sea, whereby the mariners judge what way she makes. For if the wake be right-astern, they conclude she makes her way forwards; but if the wake be to leeward a point or two, then they conclude she falls to the leeward of her course. When one ship giving chase to another, is got as far into the wind as she, and sails directly after her, they say, she has got into her wake. A ship is said to stay to the weather of her wake, when, in her staying, she is so quick, that she does not fall to leeward upon a tack, but that when she is tacked, her wake is to the leeward; and it is a sign she feels her belm very well, and is quick of steerage.

The walrus is slow and clumsy while on land, but quick and active in the water. It often comes on shore, and the female brings forth her young there in the spring. It is fearless and inoffensive, unless disturbed, and strongly attached to its mate and young, but becomes fierce and formidable when attacked, especially if the young are present, furiously endeavoring to sink the boats by rising and hooking their tusks over their sides; and frequently the violence of its blows is sufficient to stave the planks of small boats. Its principal food it is said, consists of shell-fish. The tusks grow to the length of ten or twenty inches, or sometimes even three feet, weighing from five to ten pounds. They are worked like ivory, but turn yellow in a short time. The skin is about an inch in thickness, and is used for a variety of purposes.

WALNUT TREE. A valuable tree, which, in its several varieties, is a native of the United States of America. The walnut is valuable for fuel, for timber and for fruit. Its wood has been often employed in the manufacture of household furni- WAR. A great evil; but inevitable, and oftenture; but being very brittle, it is at present super-times necessary. If he who first reduced to rules ceded by mahogany and other foreign timber. the art of destroying his fellow creatures had no Nevertheless, it is highly prized by joiners and end in view but to gratify the passions of princes, cabinet makers, for tables, gun-stocks, and other he was a monster, whom it would have been a light articles; as it is beautifully veined, and duty to smother at his birth: but if his intention admits of a fine polish. The fruit of the walnut was the defence of persecuted virtue, or the puntree, is used at two periods of its growth, namely, ishment of successful wickedness, to curb ambition, when green for pickling, and in a ripe state, at the or to oppose the unjust claims of superior power, desert. According to Bartram, the Creek Indians mankind ought to erect altars to his memory. store up the shell bark hickory or walnuts, War in the last case, is the most necessary and sometimes to the amount of an hundred bushels useful of all the sciences: the various kinds of to a family. They pound them to pieces, and knowledge which ought to furnish the mind of a solthen cast them into boiling water; which, after dier are not without great difficulty to be attained. passing through fine strainers, preserves the most Of most other sciences the principles are fixed, or oily part of the liquid: this they call by a name at least they may be acertained by the assistance which signifies hickory milk. It is as sweet and of experience; there needs nothing but diligence rich as fresh cream, and is an ingredient in most to learn them, or a particular turn of mind to pracof their cookery, especially homony and corn tise them. Philosophy, mathematics, architecture, cakes. and many others, are all founded upon invariable combinations. Every man, even of a

narrow

WALRUS. A marine quadruped, resembling understanding, may remember rules, apply them the seal in the structure of the feet, but differing properly, and sometimes draw just consequences in the teeth and digestive system. It is large and from them: but the science of war branches out unwieldy, sometimes attaining the weight of 2000 | into so many particulars; it takes in so many dif

ferent parts; there are so many reflections neces- |effect of genius; others acquire it by study or exsary to be made, so many circumstances and cases perience; he who knows how to command bimto be brought together, that it is only by a contin- self, and has courage enough to keep himself cool ual application, grounded upon the love of his duty, on the most urgent occasions, has the readiest and and an inclination to his profession, that any man quickest eye. A quick, hot-headed man, however can attain it. brave, sees nothing; or if he does, it is confusedly, and generally too late.

To march an army in every sort of country, whether open, woody, or mountainous; to know how to form a camp in all those countries, with which the general must be thoroughly acquainted in order to do it with security; to make a proper disposition for a battle, whether with a view to the posture of the enemy, or to the situation of the country; to foresee events which depend in a manner upon chance; to be capable of making a good retreat on proper occasions; to direct the forages without fatiguing or exposing the troops; to send out detachments with precaution; to conduct the convoys in safety; to know how to canton an army; to establish magazines in places, both safe and within reach of the army, so that it shall never be in want of subsistence;-these are the great ends of the military science.

It is commonly thought sufficient for a military man to know how to obey; and it is also supposed that the success of a day cannot be dubious, if a general joins the confidence of the soldiers to personal courage, a cool head, and a knowledge of the country.

It is true that, in cases of perplexity, many generals have in a great measure owed to their own capacity, and the confidence their soldiers have reposed in them, the advantages they have gained over the enemy; and confidence will always be reposed by the soldiers in that general in whom they perceive coolness united with courage. At the battle of Cannæ, when Gisco seemed to be much astonished at the superiority of the enemy's number, Hannibal answered him coolly, "There is, Gisco, a thing still more surprising, of which you take no notice. Gisco asking him what it was, 'It is,' replied Hannibal, that in all that great crowd there is not one man whose name is Gisco.' Plutarch observes, that this coolness of Hannibal greatly animated the Carthagenians, who could not imagine that their general would joke at so important a time, without being certain of overcoming his enemies.

It is this quick eye which enables a general to judge of an advantageous post, of a manœuvre to be made, and of a good disposition for the troops, whether with respect to that of the enemy, or to the situation and nature of the country.

The quick eye is no other than that penetrating genius which lets nothing escape it. A general who knows how to unite this quality with perpetual coolness, never is in want of expedients; he will see how those events, which to any other would be the presage of his own defeat, may end in the overthrow of his enemies,

The choice of the general officers depends upon this genius, which discovers every thing; they ought to be the right hand of the general, and as capable of commanding the army as himself. Whatever good dispositions a general may make, they must prove ineffectual if not seconded by the general officers under his command; he cannot be everywhere, neither can he foresee all exigencies that may arise. He is obliged to give only general orders; it is therefore the business of those who command under him to know how to take the advantage of a wrong movement of the enemy; to take upon them to attack, or sustain the troops which are engaged; and, as circumstances vary, to make them advance towards the enemy, either to keep him back or to attack him.

But the qualities already mentioned would be useless, if order and discipline were not severely observed: the most numerous and best composed army would soon become little else than a body of rangers, who being only united by the hope of booty, would separate as soon as that motive ceased; and trusting each to his own head, or indulging his own humor, would be cut in pieces party by party: so that if the general does not keep up subordination, (the soul and strength of discipline,) his army will be nothing more than a troop of Tartars acting more from the hope of plunder than the desire of glory. What art and what genius is there Although bravery and courage are the most not requisite to maintain this subordination? Too essential qualifications of a subordinate officer, yet much severity disgusts the soldier, and renders him he should not be deficient in those which are re- mutinous; too much indulgence sinks him into quired in a general, and which have been already indolence, and makes him neglect his duty; licenmentioned; obedience to the orders delivered to tiousness causes that subordination to seein burhim is no longer a virtue than whilst he compre- densome, which should never in any degree be hends and knows the intention of them. War, given up: he loses that respect, and often that consays a celebrated author, is a business which, like fidence, which he should have with regard to his all others, must be learned; it supposes some qual-officer; and indulgence often makes a well disciities to be born with us, and demands others which plined body become a set of sluggards, who march are to be acquired: but since all these qualities against their will, and who, on the most pressing must have the original source in genius, a man emergencies, think only on their own safety. who proposes war for his profession should never engage in it without having consulted his natural bent, or without knowing the particular turn and power of his mind. Ability, whether in a general or an officer, is the effect of his genius, quickened by a natural liking to his business.

A quick eye, which is of great importance to a soldier, is natural to some, and in them it is the

Besides these qualities, which are essential to a general, and which all who would attain that rank ought of course to have, there are still many others necessary to make a great man. A general who would merit the title of a hero, ought to unite in himself all civil, military, and political excellence. It is by this that he will easily attain to make war with success; nothing will escape hin; he will

know without difficulty the genius of every coun- | obtained separate from each other. This importry, and of the nations which compose the enemy's ariny, the abilities of the generals who command, and the nature of the troops under them; he knows that he may venture a motion with some troops that he would not dare to attempt with others that are equally brave. One nation is vehement, fiery, and formidable in the first onset; another is not so hasty, but of more perseverance; with the former, a single instant determines success; with the latter, the action is not so rapid, but the event is less doubtful.

tant discovery constitutes one of the most brilliant epochas in chemistry. Natural philosophers define water to be an insipid, ponderous, transparent body, susceptible of the different changes of aggregation, from solidity to that of elastic vapor. It is found in almost every natural body. There are, nevertheless, many substances with which art cannot unite it, although this is continually done in nature. It is obtained from the hardest wood, and the most solid bones; exists in the hardest and most compact calcareous stones; and forms the greater part of the fluids, and a considerable proportion of the solid parts of animal bodies. It is these facts that have occasioned it to be reckoned among the elements. This opinion, however, is now done away; and it is to Lavoisier, as it has been already observed, that we are indebted for a more accurate knowledge of the nature of water. He caused this fluid to pass, drop by drop, through a gun barrel, placed in a furnace, and kept at a red heat. The water in the state of vapor is decomposed by the contact of the iron: the pure air it contains becomes fixed in the iron, as is proved by the augmentation of its weight, and the singular alteration it undergoes; and the inflammable air, set at liberty, passes swiftly through the gun barrel, and is received into inverted glasses, properly adapted, at the other end. By repeating these experiments with all possible accuracy, this philosopher found, that water contains six parts of pure air, and one of inflammable air.

No man is born a general, although he brings into the world with him the seeds of those virtues which make a great man: Cæsar, Spinola, Turenne, the great Conde, and some others, showed, even in their earliest years, such qualities as ranked them above other men; they carried within them the principles of those great virtues which they drew forth to action by profound study, and which they brought to perfection by the help of practice: those who came after them, with perhaps fewer natural talents, have by study rendered themselves worthy of being compared to them. Cæsar and all conquerors had this advantage, that they were able to make their own opportunities, and always acted by their own choice. A man may be a good general without being a Marlborough or a Turenne: such geniuses are scarcely seen once in an age; but the more they are raised above the rest of mankind, the more they ought to excite emulation. It is by endeavoring to surpass the intellects of the second rate; it is by striving to equal the most sublime, On the purification of corrupted water, the folthat the imitation of them is to be attained. This lowing memoir was read to the Economical Socipassion in a soldier is neither pride nor presump-ety at Petersburg, by Mr. Lowitz. tion; it is virtue; and it is by this only that he can hope to be serviceable to the state, and add to the glory of his country.

WARP. In Manufactures, a name for the threads, whether of silk, wool, linen, hemp, &c. that are extended lengthwise on the weaver's loom; and across which the workman, by means of his shuttle, passes the threads of the woof, to form a cloth, riband, fustian, or the like.

Also, a small rope, employed occasionally to remove a ship from one place to another, in a port, road, or river.

WATCH. In Mechanics, a machine which shows the parts of time, and may be carried in the pocket. The invention of the spring, which answers to the pendulum of a clock, and without which a time keeper for the pocket cannot be made, is attributed both to Hooke and to Huygens. Among the first watches, according to the modern acceptation of the name, that were made in England, was that presented to Charles II.

WATER. In Physics, an incompressible fluid, composed of oxygen and hydrogen. In common language, water is called one of the four elements. Water has always been considered as an element, capable of assuming a great number of forms and combinations, unalterable in itself, and recovering its primary state. But Lavoisier has shown by his researches, that water, as well as air, is formed from principles of greater simplicity, which may be

Water is one of those substances, without which mankind cannot exist; yet every one knows, that it is very apt to become putrid, and to contract, in consequence of its being so, qualities which render its use unsafe. This circumstance is particularly embarrassing in sea voyages; and it deserves no less consideration in those districts, where the inhabitants are often obliged to make use of stagnant water, or of such as, from its hepatic taste and smell, is very disagreeable. It would be useless here to enumerate the various disorders occasioned by the use of such waters; but it is undoubtedly an object of great importance, to make known the means by which the putrefaction of water may be prevented, and by which that water, wherein putrefaction has already taken place, may be rendered perfectly sweet.

'Having employed myself, recently, in making a great number of experiments on the purifying powers of charcoal, I saw, with great satisfaction, that it possessed, among other properties, that of almost instantly depriving the most putrid water of its bad smell. From that circumstance, I immediately conceived an idea, that it might have a very powerful effect in preventing water from becoming putrid; and the numerous trials I have since made, have convinced me that I was not deceived in my opinion.

'Pure water, properly so called, when deprived of all heterogeneous parts, is not subject to become putrid; but it is very difficult to keep it long in a pure state, on account of its dissolving powers. To preserve water for a length of time in that state, it

would be necessary to keep it in vessels of glass, or purpose in question; but vitriolic acid certainly of earthen ware; but the brittleness of these vessels preferable to any of these. Water which is puri renders it impossible to make use of very large fied by means of this acid and charcoal, will keep ones; and we are therefore obliged to have re-a longer time than that which is purified by char course to wooden vessels, which, though they are coal alone. not subject to be broken, like the others, have the disadvantage of imparting to the water a great quantity of mucilaginous and extractive particles, which hasten its putrefaction. It is well known, that these particles, in a state of division, furnish an innumerable quantity of living creatures; the almost perpetual and uninterrupted destruction and regeneration of which, communicate to water that degree of corruption and putrefaction, which renders its use so dangerous. It is not, therefore, from the water itself, but from the continual decomposition of the substances dissolved in it, that its disposition to putrefaction arises.

"The cleanness of the casks in which water is kept, in sea voyages, is an object which shoul never be neglected. I have already described the best method of cleaning them, and of depriving them of any bad smell; and it would not be amiss, if that operation were repeated every time they are about to be filled with fresh water. I would advise, that six or eight pounds of pow dered charcoal be used to each cask, (but it is better to use too much than too little of this pow der,) and as much vitriolic acid as is sufficient to communicate to the water a degree of acidity hardly to be perceived. To hinder the charcoal from settling at the bottom of the cask, in the form of a paste, it will be proper to stir the whole together with a stick, at least twice every week. By this means, the charcoal will be better dispersed through the whole mass of water, and consequently wil perform its office more completely.

'From what has been said, it evidently appears, that the first means of preserving from putrefaction water which we are obliged to keep in wooden vessels or casks, consists in having these reservoirs perfectly clean. The smallest quantity of matter already corrupted being left in them, acts as a real ferment, and very quickly disposes the fresh water, 'Powder of charcoal and vitriolic acid are two with which these vessels are filled, to become pu- anti-putrescent substances. The first prevents the trid in the same manner. For this reason I advise, water from acquiring that yellow color, which i that the casks, or other vessels, be well washed usually contracts by time; and the acid particular with hot water and sand, or with any other sub-ly contributes to clarify the water, which the pow stance capable of removing the mucilaginous par-der of charcoal, when employed alone, generally ticles; and afterwards, that a certain quantity of renders turbid. If we wish to make use of the powder of charcoal be employed, which will entirely deprive such casks, &c. of the musty or putrid smell they may have contracted.

When water is preserved by having certain substances mixed with it, these substances act, either by their anti-putrescent powers, or by mechanically absorbing the putrified particles. Vitriolic acid possesses the first of these properties; and powder of charcoal fulfils the second intention, in a very striking manner.

To satisfy myself that charcoal, when used alone, possesses the property of preserving water from corruption, I undertook, in the summer of the year 1790, a course of experiments, which completely fulfilled my hopes: but, at the same time, I was convinced, that the effect of the charcoal is rendered much more speedy by using, along with it, some

vitriolic acid.

"The following, according to the result of my experiments, is the best proportion of charcoal powder and vitriolic acid; viz. one ounce and a half of charcoal in powder, and twenty-four drops of concentrated vitriolic acid, (oil of vitriol,) are sufficient to purify three pints and a half of corrupted water, and do not communicate to it any sensible acidity. This small quantity of vitriolic acid renders it unnecessary to use more than one third part, at most, of the charcoal powder which would be wanted, if the acid were not made use of; and the less of that powder is employed, the less is the quantity of water lost by the operation, which, in sea voyages, is an object worthy of consideration. In proportion to the quantity of acid made use of, the quantity of charcoal may be diminished or augmented; and it must be observed, that all acids produce nearly the same effects. Neutral salts also, particularly nitre and sea salt, may be used for the

water so preserved, we should try it first, by pass ing a small quantity of it through a strainer, in the form of a jelly bag, filled with powder of charcoal Such a strainer or bag should always be in readiness, to be made use of for such trials.

When we mean to purify any great quantity of corrupted water, we should begin by adding to it as much powder of charcoal as is necessary to deprive it entirely of its bad smell. To ascertain whether that quantity of powdered charcoal was sufficient to effect the clarification of the said water, a small quantity of it may be passed through a linen bag, two or three inches long. If the water, thus filtered, still has a turbid appearance, a fresh quantity of powdered charcoal must be added, till it is become perfectly clear. The whole of the water may then be passed through a filtering bag, the size of which should be proportioned to the quantity of water.

'If vitriolic acid, or any other, can be procured, a small quantity of it should be added to the water, before the charcoal powder is used. The quantity of acid must be regulated according to the state of putridity in which the water is. If the water is intended merely for dressing meat and vegetables for the ship's crew, instead of the acid, such quantity of sea salt as would have been proper for seasoning the above articles, may be employed. Saline substances, like acids, hasten the effecs of the charcoal powder. By making use of acids, as was before observed, a much less quantity of pow dered charcoal is necessary; and, so easy is the process to any one a little accustomed to operations of this kind, that four or five minutes only are required to render several gallons of very patrid water fit to drink.

"To improve the taste of those spring waters

which have naturally an hepatic flavor, and are | board all ships there is a fire every day, economy therefore unpleasant to make use of, nothing more requires that we should save the charcoal of the is necessary than to filter them through a bag half wood which has been used; and, instead of letting filled with powder of charcoal. If such waters are it burn to ashes, it should be extinguished by water, not very much loaded with mucilaginous particles, or by any other means, and kept to be made use the addition of an acid is not necessary. With re- of when wanted. spect to the best method of preparing the powder of charcoal, what I have said on that subject in "Crell's Annals" for the year 1788, pages 36 and 131 of the second volume, and in the first volume for the year 1791, pages 308, 398, and 494, may be consulted.

Powder of charcoal, when prepared according to the method described as above, is a very light substance; a circumstance which may perhaps appear embarrassing, on account of the room it will take up in a ship, supposing the quantity of it to be in proportion to the quantity of water taken on board. The following is the result of my experiments respecting the space required for stowing the charcoal.

"The cinders of pit coal, provided they are perfectly burnt, and reduced to powder, may serve, in case of necessity, for the purification of water: but, when this kind of coal is made use of, no acid of any kind must be added to the water; as the metallic particles which pit coal contains, even after it is thoroughly burnt, might, if acids were employed, communicate dangerous qualities to the water.

'It is proper to observe here, that charcoal takes from the water a part of the acid which has been made use of. If two drops of oil of vitriol are put into four ounces of water, the water will become sensibly acid; but this acidity will immediately disappear, if a small quantity of powdered charcoal be added to the water.'

First, four ounces and a half of powdered char- Professor Hufeland recommends carbone to be coal, a quantity which is sufficient to purify three reduced to fine powder; a spoonful of which must pints and a half of water, when no acid is made be mixed with a piut of stagnant, corrupted, or bad use of, take up as much space as sixteen ounces of water. The whole should be well stirred, then water; but, if this powder is strongly compressed, suffered to stand for a few minutes, and afterwards it will take up only the space of nine ounces of passed slowly through filtering paper. He remarks, water: consequently, two casks of powdered char-that the same powder will serve repeatedly; and, coal would be required to purify eleven casks of

water.

after drying it, he advises travellers to keep it closely corked in a bottle; because the influence of the 'Secondly, one ounce and a half of powdered air would render it useless. Lastly, if either of the charcoal is sufficient to purify three pints and a expedients already described, cannot be convenihalf of water, provided a small quantity of vitriolicently adopted, the putrid tendency of water may acid, or sea salt, is at the same time made use of. be corrected by mixing vinegar, or acid of lemons, One cask of powdered charcoal, therefore, if tight- with the corrupted fluid; and, in case any quantity ly packed, is sufficient for seventeen casks of water. of the latter should have been accidentally swalIn the last experiments I made on this subject, Ilowed, its injurious effects may be obviated, by found that six drachms of powdered charcoal were immediately taking small, but repeated draughts sufficient to deprive three pints of water of its bad of vinegar. smell, and to render it perfectly clear; provided, at the same time, twenty-four drops of vitriolic acid were added. In this way, therefore, one cask of powdered charcoal would be sufficient to purify thirty-four casks of corrupted water. These experiments, however, must be considered as liable to some variation; for, in order to obtain effects equal to those I have related, the charcoal powder must be prepared with the greatest care. It must also be observed, that though the above small quantity was found sufficient to deprive the water entirely of its bad smell, and to render it very clear, a larger quantity will be required to deprive it of its bad

taste.

'In order to save the charcoal powder on board a ship, (as that is an article not easily procured at sea,) I advise, that the powder should not be thrown away after it has been once used; for if it is afterwards well dried, and again beat to powder, it will by that means acquire new surfaces, and will serve, a second time, to purify a quantity of water almost as great as that for which it was used the first time. Nay, charcoal powder which has been several times made use of, and has, in consequence thereof, entirely lost its purifying power, will immediately recover it by being made red hot in a close vessel. This operation is certainly a troublesome one on board a ship; but it may, perhaps, in some circumstances, be rendered more easy. As on

WATER CHESTNUT. An aquatic plant of China. The Chinese cultivate even the bottom of their waters; and the beds of their lakes, ponds and rivulets, produce crops that to us are unknown. Their industry has found out resources in a number of aquatic plants, among which the pitsi, or water chestnut, is one of the greatest delicacies of a Chinese table. The government has caused this plant to be cultivated in all the lakes, marshes, and waste grounds, covered with water, which belong to the state. And the emperor has ordered all the lands which ornament his gardens, to be planted with it, and the greater part of the ditches round his palace are full of it: the flowers and verdure of this plant cover those two vast sheets of water in the centre of Pekin, which are adjacent to the gardens of the imperial palace.

WATER COLORS. Colors made of water instead of oil. The principal of the water colors are as follows: white-ceruse, white lead, Spanish white, flake white, spodium: black-burnt cherry stones, ivory black, lamp black: green-green bice, green verditer, grass green, sap green, verdigris distilled: blue-Sanders blue, terre blue, blue verditer, indigo litmus, smalt, Prussian blue, light blue, ultramarine, blue bice: brown-Spanish brown, Spanish liquorice, umber, bistre, terra de Sienna

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