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which his roots or lacteals are directed; while in vegetables, which have no stomach, the roots are fixed in the soil. When the stomach loses its absorbent power, and its chemical reagency, the animal dies.

STOMACH PUMP. A small pump-in this application called the stomach pump-has lately been introduced into practice for removing poisons from the stomach in cases where the action of vomiting cannot be excited. It has already saved many lives. It resembles the common small syringe, except that there are two apertures near the end, instead of one, which, owing to valves in them, opening different ways, become what are called a sucking and a forcing passage. When the object is to extract from the stomach, the pump is worked while its sucking orifice is in connexion with an elastic tube passed into the stomach; and the discharged matter escapes by the forcing orifice. When it is desired, on the contrary, to throw cleansing water or other liquid into the stomach, the connexion of the apertures and the tubes is reversed.

As a pump may not be always procurable when the occasion for it arises, the profession should be aware, that a simple tube will, in many cases, answer the purpose as well, if not better. If the tube be introduced, and the body of the patient be so placed that the tube forms a downward channer from the stomach, all fluid matter will escape from the stomach by it, as water escapes from a funnel by its pipe; and if the outer end of the tube be kept immersed in liquid, there will be, during the discharge, a siphon action of considerable force. On changing the posture of the body, water may be poured in through the same tube to wash the stomach. Such a tube, made long enough, might if desired, be rendered a complete bent siphon, the necessary preliminary suction being made by a syringe, or by the mouth through an intervening vessel.

STONE. A hard mineral, that may be used in various ways in building. The principal component parts of stones are silica, alumina, zircona, glucina, lime, and magnesia: sometimes the oxides of iron, manganese, nickel, chronium, and copper are also found to enter into their composition.

STONEHENGE. A pile of huge stones on Salisbury Plain, in England, six miles distant from that city, which is generally admitted by antiquaries to have been a British temple. It consists of the remains of four ranks of rough stones ranged one within another, and sustaining others that are laid across and fastened by mortices.

STORK. If we observe the stork externally only, it may very easily be confounded with the crane, though the latter is ash and black, and the former is white and brown; yet as the neck, legs, and body, have the same appearance, it is no wonder this mistake has frequently been made. The crane, however, has a piercing voice, whilst the stork never utters any sound, though it produces a singular noise by striking the upper and lower jaw. The crane feeds upon corn and vegetables, whilst

the stork preys entirely upon frogs, serpents, birds, and fish: the former lays but two eggs, but the latter generally four, and is fond of residing near populous places, whilst the crane endeavors to remain concealed.

Storks are birds of passage, like the former; but, as they travel by night, their flight is concealed: they all assemble on a particular day, and not one of the party is ever left behind. They generally return to Europe about the middle of March, and form their nests on the tops of chimneys and houses; are extremely attentive and careful of their young, and seldom trust them out of their sight.

The Egyptians had so high a veneration for this bird, that they paid it honors which ought only to have been divine. It is usually supposed that the ancient ibis is the same with that which goes at present by this name; it is a bird of the stork kind, about the size of a curlew, and entirely black; with a bill which terminates in a point that enables it to seize its destructive prey, which consists of locusts, caterpillars, and serpents, with which that country so particularly abounds.

STRAW. In the manufacture of straw hats, the culms of several kinds of grasses are used. The Leghorn straw is the culm of a sort of wheat sown on poor soils, and cut green. Rye straw is much used in this manufacture. The straw is cut at the joints; and the outer covering being removed, it is sorted of equal sizes, and made up into bundles of eight or ten inches in length, and a foot in circumference. They are then to be dipped in water, and shaken a little, so as not to retain too much moisture: the bundles are afterwards to be placed on their edges, for the purpose of bleaching, in a box which is sufficiently close to prevent the evaporation of smoke. In the middle of the box is an earthen dish, containing brimstone, broken in small pieces: this is set on fire, and the box covered over and kept in the open air several hours. It is the business of one person to split and select the straws for fifty others who are braiders.

The splitting is done by a small machine, made principally of wood. The straws, when split, are termed splints, of which each worker has a certain quantity: on one end is wrapped a linen cloth, and they are held under the arm, and drawn out as wanted. Plaiters should be taught to use their second fingers and thumbs, instead of the forefingers, which are often required to assist in turning the splints, and thus much facilitate the plaîting; and they should be cautioned against wetting the splints too much. The finest hats are made in the neighborhood of Leghorn, whence they are exported in great numbers. The Dunstable manufactures in Bedfordshire, England, are of a fine quality. In the English plait, the straws are flattened in a hand mill, previous to working; but in the Leghorn, the pressure is applied after the plaiting is made.

STRAWBERRY. This is one of the most wholesome and most delicious of our fruits. The pulp is light, melting, and, notwithstanding, but little watery, and does not undergo the acetous fermentation in the stomach. It exhales a most

delightful perfume, and the flavor is exquisite, especially immediately after being plucked from the stem. The root gives out several long, slender, creeping shoots, which take root at intervals, and form so many new stocks; the leaves are compos-ety of causes, as general or partial concussions and ed of three leaflets, supported on a long foot-stalk, which is provided with stipules at the base. From the midst of the leaves arise two or three simple, slender, silky stems, from four to six inches high, and terminated by a few white flowers, disposed in a sort of corymb. After flowering, the receptacle increases, acquires a pulpy and succulent consistence, and finally a red color, when the strawberries have attained maturity.

every stratum occupying its proper and ascending post from that of granite, which is supposed uniformly to be lowest, to earths, lavas, and tufas, which are supposed to lie highest: but that a varidisruptions of the globe's solid surface, general or partial deluges, &c. have produced a considerable change in their proper arrangement and superposition; although from the extensive regularity that still exists, we have sufficient reason, in his judgment, to infer the more perfect and universal regularity that existed at first. All the different kinds of rocks that enter into the five classes or formations to which we just alluded may, on a The strawberry is easily cultivated, and numer-gross average, be taken at about sixty; and in th ous varieties have been produced; some of great different strata which they compose by their superexcellence have been obtained recently. It forces position, we often meet with smaller strata or laywell, and, with a little trouble in choosing a suc-ers of other rocks or substances imbedded as cession of sorts, may be had almost every month in though the latter had dropped into the former the year. An open situation, and rich, loamy soil, while the larger strata were in a soft or fluid state. rather strong, is required for most varieties; and It is to these internal and smaller strata or layers from their large mass of foliage and flowers, they that the term beds is peculiarly appropriated. must, till the fruit is set, have copious supplies of water. The row culture is the most convenient, and frequent renewal ensures vigorous plants and large fruit. A palatable jam, wine and vinegar are prepared from strawberries; and they are sometimes preserved entire, in sirup or in wine. Besides the cultivated strawberry, we have a wild species, common in most parts of the United States.

STRATUM. In Mineralogy, a tunic or layer of any of those substances which enter into the solid crust or shell of the globe. The Latin plural of stratum is strata, which is also in equal use in mineralogical technology. These terms are often employed in a popular and looser sense as synonyms with bed and beds; but in a strict and scientific use bed imports a smaller range of mineral matter than stratum.

In a comprehensive view the solid surface of the earth is composed of strata, veins, and cavities: the first constituting massy layers of rocks more or less simple, and more or less extensive: the second comprehending those transverse sections which are so frequently to be met with in them, consisting either of simple fissures, or of some other rock or material filling up the fissure, often from the deepest bottom of the stratum to its utmost surface, as though it had been exposed to the action of some enormous force that had split the stratum asunder from its top to its base, antecedently to the creation, or at least to the arrival of the veiny matter in the fissure hereby produced. Cavities are open spaces of different forms and diameters, existing at almost every depth in the subterranean regions, produced by volcanoes, earthquakes, the attrition of rivers, and a variety of other causes, some of them known, but by far the greater part unknown.

According to the Wernerian system, the solid crust of the earth consists of five general classes of formations, each comprising a considerable number of strata, which lie more or less regularly over each other, and which he denominates primitive, transition, floetz or horizontal, alluvial and volcanic. He conceives that all these, and all the various strata which appertain to each separately, were originally produced in the most perfect order,

STRENGTH. In Physiology, the same with force. Men may apply their strength several ways in working a machine. A man of ordinary strength, turning a roller by the handle, can act for a whole day against a resistance equal to thirty pounds weight; and if he works ten hours a day, he will raise a weight of thirty pounds through three feet and a half in a second of time; or if the weight be greater, he will raise it so much less in proportion. But a man may act, for a small time, against a resistance of fifty pounds or more. If two men work at a windlass, or roller, they can more easily draw up seventy pounds, than one man can thirty pounds, provided the elbow of one of the handles be at right angles to that of the other. And with a fly, or heavy wheel, applied to it, a man may do one third part more work; and for a little while he can act with a force, or overcome a continual resistance, of eighty pounds; and work a whole day when the resistance is but forty pounds. Men used to bear loads, such as porters, will carry, some one hundred and fifty pounds, others two hundred or two hundred and fifty pounds, according to their strength. A man can draw but about seventy or eighty pounds horizontally; for he can but apply half his weight. If the weight of a man be one hundred and forty pounds, he can act with no greater force in thrusting horizontally, at the height of his shoulders, than twenty-seven pounds.

As to horses: a horse is, generally speaking, as strong as five men. A horse will carry two hundred and forty or two hundred and seventy pounds. A horse draws to greatest advantage when the line of direction is a little elevated above the horizon, and the power acts against his breast: and he can draw two hundred pounds for eight hours a day, at two miles and a half an hour. If he draw two hundred and forty pounds, he can work but six hours, and not go quite so fast. And in both cases, if he carries some weight, he will draw the better for it. And this is the weight a horse is supposed to be able to draw over a pulley out of a well. But in a cart, a horse may draw one thousand pounds, er even double that weight, or a ton weight, or more.

For more on the subject of animal strength, consult the treatises on Mechanics by Emerson, Gregory, and the first volume of Professor Playfair's Outlines of Natural Philosophy.

Emerson has particularly treated of the strength of bodies depending on their dimensions and weight. In the general scholium after his propositions on this subject, he adds; If a certain beam of timber be able to support a given weight; another beam, of the same timber, similar to the former, may be taken so great, as to be able but just to bear its own weight: while any larger beam caunot support itself, but must break by its own weight; but any less beam will bear something more. For the strength being as the cube of the depth; and the stress, being as the length and quantity of matter, is at the fourth power of the depth; it is plain therefore, that the stress increases in a greater ratio than the strength. Whence it follows, that a beam may be taken so large, that the stress may far exceed the strength and that, of all similar beams, there is but one that will support itself, and nothing more. And the like holds true in all machines, and in all animal bodies. And hence there is a

certain limit, in regard to magnitude, not only all machines and artificial structures, but also in natural ones, which neither art nor nature can go beyond; supposing them made of the same matter, and in the same proportion of parts.

farther, or perform any motion quicker, for their weight, than large animals: for the less the animal, the greater the proportion of the strength to the stress. And nature seems to know no bounds as to the smallness of animals, at least in regard to their weight.

Neither can any two unequal and similar machines resist any violence alike, or in the same proportion; but the greater will be more hurt than the less. And the same is true of animals; for large animals by falling break their bones, while lesser ones, falling higher receive no damage. Thus a cat may fall two or three yards high, and be no worse, and an ant from the top of a tower.

It is likewise inpossible in the nature of things, that there can be any trees of immense size; if there were any such, their limbs, boughs, and branches, must break off and fall down by their own weight. Thus it is impossible there can be an oak a quarter of a mile high; such a tree cannot grow or stand, but its limbs will drop off by their own weight. And hence also smaller plants cau better sustain themselves than large ones.

marble pulverised, and mixed with plaster of lime; STUCCO. In Building, a composition of white and the whole being sifted and wrought up with water, is to be used like common plaster: this is called by Pliny marmoratum opus, and albarium

opus.

Hence it is impossible, that mechanic engines can be increased to any magnitude at pleasure. STURGEON. The Sturgeon, with a form as For when they arrive at a particular size, their terrible, and a body nearly as large as the shark, is several parts will break and fall asunder by their yet harmless and innocent in its nature. The exweight. Neither can any building of vast magui-ternal appearance of this animal bears some resemtudes be made to stand, but must fall to pieces by blance to that of fresh water pike: the nose is long, their great weight, and go to ruin. the mouth is sinall; and it has neither jaw bones nor teeth.

It is likewise impossible for nature to produce animals of any vast size at pleasure: except some Though the sturgeon is a fish neither calculated sort of matter can be found, to make the bones of, for war nor depredation, yet its external appearance which may be so much harder and stronger than is rather formidable to the sight; it is long, penany hitherto known or else that the proportion of tagonal, and covered with five rows of large bony the parts be so much altered, and the bones and knobs, one row on the back, and two on each side, muscles made thicker in proportion; which will with a number of fins to promote its velocity and make the animal distorted, and of a monstrous fig- speed. Of this fish there are three distinct kinds; ure, and not capable of performing any proper the common sturgeon, the caviar sturgeon, and the actions. And being made similar and of common buso, or isinglass fish. The first has eleven knobs matter, they will not be able to stand or move; but, or scales on the back; the second has fifteen; and being burdened with their own weight, must fall the third has forty-three upon the tail, and thirteen down. Thus, it is impossible that there can be upon the back. The first of these is the common any animal so large as to carry a casde upon his sturgeon, the flesh of which is pickled, and sent back; or any man so strong as to remove a moun- into many parts of the world. From the second tain, or pull up a large oak by the roots; nature the roe is taken, which forms a delicate dish, known will not admit of these things; and it is impossible by the name of caviar; and the third not only supthat there can be animals of any sort beyond a de-plies us with that ingredient, but with that useful terminate size.

Fishes may indeed be produced to a larger size than land animals; because their weight is supported by the water. But yet even these cannot be increased to immensity, because the internal parts will press upon one another by their weight, and destroy their fabric.

commodity from which it derives its name. There is not a single country of Europe, but what this fish is known to visit, at different times of the year; but the inhabitants along the banks of the Po, the Danube, and the Wolga, are allowed to derive the greatest advantages from its fondness for change of scene, as they are always prepared with nets to intercept their passage, and then convert their bodies into the most profitable use.

On the contrary, when the size of animals is diminished, their strength is not diminished in the same proportion as the weight. For which reason The largest sturgeon ever caught in Great Brita small animal will carry far more than a weight ain, is allowed to have been taken in the river equal to its own, whilst a great one cannot carry Eske; and, to those who have seen only fresh so much as its weight. And hence it is that water fishes, it must have appeared enormous, as small animals are more active, and run faster, jump it weighed four hundred and sixty pounds.

Solutions of corrosive sublimate, in the proportion of one dram to a quart of water, are chiefly employed for consuming proud flesh, and cleansing foul ulcers. A much weaker solution is sometimes used by the gay, as a cosmetic for removing cutaneous eruptions. In a dry state, mixed with flour, honey, &c., the sublimate forms a powerful composition for destroying rats, mice, or other vermin: but, on account of its deleterious properties, the greatest caution is requisite, particularly in places to which children have access.

As the sturgeon is a harmless animal, and never | Being extremely corrosive, and the manufacture voracious or rapaciously inclined, there is little of this drug being attended with great danger to chance of obtaining it by the assistance of a line: health, it is generally imported from Venice and in fact it exists upon sea-plants or insects, therefore Holland. the fisherman only attempts to secure it by nets. They have two methods of preparing the flesh of the sturgeon: the one, by drying it, and hanging it up in the sun; and the other, by cutting it into pieces, and placing it in barrels, and covering it with a pickle of salt and sanmure. Isinglass is composed of the skin, entrails, and fins of the sturgeon, which are macerated in warm water, and then boiled over a slow fire until they have acquired the consistency of a paste, which is first spread out into sheets like those of parchment, and then formed into rolls. This valuable commodity is principally brought from Russia, where great SUBLIMATION. In Chemistry, a process by quantities of it are prepared remarkably cheap; which certain volatile substances are raised by and though an Englishman discovered a substitute heat, and again condensed by cold into a solid form. that answered the purpose, yet the arts that were Thus sulphur, exposed to heat in close vessels, is practised to prevent him from perseverance, soon volatilized or sublimed in the form of very white brought the article into discredit and disuse. Isin- powder, known by the name of 'flowers of sulglass is not only serviceable in a medical capacity, but the wine merchant, the varnisher, and the clothier, are all materially benefitted by its use. This fish is often seen in our rivers.

STYLE. A sort of bodkin with which the ancients wrote on wax or on lead, now used for writing on ivory, leaves, and paper particularly prepared for the purpose.

STYLE IN CHRONOLOGY. The manner of computing time, which is either old style or new style. By the old style the year consisted of 365 days and 6 hours; but the new or Gregorian style was made to correspond more nearly with the period of the sun's revolution, reckoning the year to be 365 days 5 hours 49 minutes 20 seconds, by retrenching 11 days from the old style. The new style was introduced into Germany in 1700, and in 1752, into England by act of parliament, whereby the 2d of September in that year was reckoned the 14th.

SUBDIVISION. Increase of division, and this, in regard to dimensions, whether of matter, or space, and to time, may be carried down to bulks and moments, less than can be expressed by numbers; a fact which confounds human speculation relative to the origin of matter, and natural motion, because both may begin from parts less than can be expressed, which the extension of this energy, through every equally small point of space in the smallest moments, may explain many difficulties in our reasonings on these subjects.

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phur.' The formation of soot in our chimneys is another instance of sublimation. Benzoin, sublimated, gives flowers of benzoin, a very beautiful substance, which is now more properly called benzoic acid. Sublimation may be performed, in many cases, with common flasks: thus if a small quantity of sal ammoniac is put into a flask, and heat applied to it, the entire salt rises in the form of white smoke, and condenses in the upper part of the flask, in the form of minute crystalline particles, which is a sublimate.

SUBLIME. In Literature, that style or manner of writing, in which a lofty thought, or a fact dignified in its character, is suitably presented to the mind.

The sources of the sublime in language, are well enumerated by Longinus. The first is elevation of mind; the second, ardent sensibility; the third, the proper use of figures; the fourth, grandeur of diction; and the fifth a dignified harmony of

arrangement.

SUBSCRIPTION. The siguing or setting one's hand to a paper; also the giving a sum of money, or engaging to give it, for the furtherance of some common object in which several are interested, as subscriptions in support of charitable institutions, and the like.

SUBSISTENCE. The food of all organised beings; in vegetables, the air, water, and unctuous matter of the soil; in animals the substance of matter prepared by vegetation; and in carnivorous creatures the substance further prepared by animalzation. The staff of human life is the starch, gluten, or albumen, of vegetables, as corn, rice, potatoes, &c. These must always be at a price proportioned to the abundance of money and circulation, and to the remuneration for labor, or the population must perish; and to decree that corn, &c. should be higher priced when money is scarce, and labor ill paid, is to pass sentence of death on the population. Of all trade, therefore, that in the necessaries of life should be allowed to find its level in exact accordance with the means of consumers.

SUCCESSION OF DAY AND NIGHT. By the daily motion of the earth on its axis, the same phenomena appear as if all the celestial bodies turned round it; so that in its rotation from west to east, when the sun or a star just appears above the horizon, it is said to be rising, and as the earth continues its revolution, it seems gradually to ascend till it has reached its meridian; here the object has its greatest elevation, and begins to decline till it sets, or becomes invisible on the western side. In the same manner the sun appears to rise and run its course to the western horizon, where it disappears, and night ensues, till it again illuminate the same part of the earth in another diurnal revolution.

One half of the earth's surface is constantly illuminated, and by its regular diurnal motion, every place is successively brought into light and immersed in darkness. If the axis of the earth were always perpendicular to the plane of the ecliptic, the days would every where be of the same length, and just as long as the nights. For an inhabitant at the equator, and one on the same meridian towards the poles, would come into the light at the same time, and on the other side would immerge into darkness at the same time. And since the motion of the earth is uniform, they would remain in the dark hemisphere just as long as in the light; that is, their day and night would be equal-the plane of the ecliptic coinciding with the plane of the equator.

But as the ecliptic and equator make an angle with each other of twenty-three and a half degrees, or in other words, as the axis of the earth has such an inclination to the plane of its orbit, it is manifest that, except the earth be in that part of its orbit where the ecliptic cuts the equator, an inhabitant at the equator and one on the same meridian towards the poles, will not come into the light at the same time, nor, on the other side, immerge into darkness, at the same time. And since the axis of the earth always preserves the same inclination, they will, except at the points where the two great circles intersect each other, remain in the dark and light hemispheres at different times; that is, their day and night will be unequal.

The points where the equator cuts the ecliptic are the beginning of the signs Libra and Aries, The earth is at these points of its orbit, or, as is commonly said, the sun enters the sign Aries on the twentieth of March, and the sign Libra on the twenty-third of September. Hence at these periods, and at no others, the days and nights are equal all over the world; and on this account they are called equinoxes; the first, the vernal, and the second, the autumnal equinox.

that day and night will be unequal in all places except those situated on the equator, where they will always be equal.

At the poles there is but one day and one night in a year, each of six months. The sun can never shine beyond a pole farther than twenty-three and a half degrees; for that is the extent of the declination; and when it has declination from the celestial equator either north or south, it must shine beyond one pole, and not to the other. The days, therefore, will be longest in one hemisphere when they are shortest in the other.

The subject of this article may be illustrated by hanging a small terrestrial globe or any other round body above or below the level of a candle, so as to correspond with the sun's declination. It will be seen, that the light shines over one pole, and does not reach the other. If the globe or ball be then turned, it will be observed, that the circles performed by any parts of the surface are unequally divided by the light; that it will be constant day or night near the north pole, as the ball is depressed or elevated, and that all the phenomena will be reversed in the other, or lower hemisphere.

The inhabitants of the polar regions are not in total darkness, even when the sun is absent. Twilight continues to enlighten them a great portion of the time. Besides this the moon is above the horizon of the poles, a fortnight together. And further to assist in mitigating the darkness, their full moons have the highest altitude, describing nearly the same track as their summer sun.

SUCKER. The piston of a pump; also a piece of leather laid wet upon a stone, which owing to the pressure of the atmosphere, adheres very closely, and is not to be pulled off without great force.

SUCKING FISH. A fish having a fat naked head and a naked body, which adheres very firmly to the bottom and sides of vessels. It was called by the aucients remora, and in the Linnæan system echineis remora.

SUCTION. The act of sucking or drawing up a fluid, as air, water, milk, or the like, by means of the mouth and lungs. There are many effects vulgarly attributed to suction, which, in reality, have very different causes. As when any one sucks water, or any other liquor, up through a pipe, it is commonly thought, that by that action the person draws the air up into his mouth, and that the water, which is contiguous to it, follows it by a kind of attraction, as if the air and water hung together; and others fancy, that the air moves into the mouth of the sucker, and the water moves up after the air, At these seasons the sun rises exactly in the east to prevent a vacuum, which, they say, nature at six o'clock, and sets exactly in the west at six abhors: whereas the true cause of this phenomeo'clock; the light of the sun is then terminated by non is only, that the air or atmosphere presses, the north and south poles, and as all parts of the with its whole weight, uniformly on the surface of earth turn round once in twenty-four hours, every the liquor in the vessel; and, consequently, preplace must receive the rays twelve hours, and be deprived of them for the same time. But at other seasons, where the rays of light are not terminated by the north and south poles, but extend over the one and do not reach the other, it must be manifest, from a moment's inspection of the circles drawn on globes, or common maps of the world,

vents any one part of the water to rise higher than the other there: and if a pipe be put in, of any tolerable large bore, and be open at both ends, the water will rise within the pipe to the same height as without, and, indeed, a little higher, because the pressure of the air within the pipe is a little taken off by bearing against the sides of the pipe. Now

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