After a little rest, if imagination supply a subject, | planets of our system revolve round the sun. Were by all means let an imaginary conversation take the sun as far from us as these stars are, it would place for twenty minutes, half an hour, or even an doubtless appear as they now do. It is certain that hour, in a firin and natural tone of voice, using they do not reflect the sun's light as do the planets; every effort of fancy, to suppose it directed to per- for their distance is so great, that they would not, sons indiscriminately; that is, sometimes to ser- in that case, be visible. vants, sometimes to equals in age and rank, and All the fixed stars, with the exception of the sometimes to elders, or those considered as superior polar or north star, notwithstanding they do not in consequence and rank in society, from whatever change their relative position, appear to have a cause. But if imagination do not furnish a topic, motion like the sun and moon, rising in the east, then let the time be spent in reading, in a tone as increasing in altitude until they approach the menearly approaching to the ease of familiar conver-ridian, and declining to the western horizon, where sation as possible, taking care to manage the fancy they disappear. This apparent motion is caused by as above. This will furnish the lesson:—and after the revolution of the earth on its axis from west to an interval of a few hours, the same sort of conver-east. sation or reading should be repeated, two or three times more in the course of a day. And on mixing with real auditors, every exertion should be made to associate the ideas of their imaginary, with their actual presence.

These directions, it will be perceived, are founded upon the principle of the association of ideas; than which a more powerful principle, in the formation of human habits, cannot be conceived.

An ingenious writer, whose observations we are now citing, is of opinion, that it may be laid down as an incontrovertible position, that persons possessing an ordinary mental capacity, with an adequate share of industry and strength, may certainly overcome the habit of stammering, by means such as are here pointed out.

The immovable appearance of the polar star is occasioned by the axis of the earth pointing directly to it. Its elevation above the horizon of any place is always equal to the latitude of that place, or its nearest distance to the equator.

The number of fixed stars visible to the naked eye, in either hemisphere, is not more than a thousand. They seem indeed to be innumerable, when, in a clear winter's evening, we turn our eyes towards the heavens. But by looking attentively, we shall find that most of those bright spots, which appeared to be stars, vanish from our view. This illusion is owing to the twinkling light with which the fixed stars are seen; and, to our viewing them confusedly, and not reducing them to any order.

By the aid of a telescope we are enabled to discover myriads of stars, which were before invisible to the unassisted eye; and, as we increase the power of the instrument, more and more stars are brought into view, so that the number may be considered infinite. Dr. Herschel was enabled, in one quarter of an hour, to count one hundred and sixteen thousand, which passed through the space embraced by his powerful glass.

Many stars, which to an observer unaided by instruments appear single, are found, on being examined by a telescope, to consist of two, and sometimes of three or more stars. Dr. Herschel discovered four hundred of this description. Other astronomers have discovered a much greater number.

STAPELIA, or POISON PLANT. Dispersed over the arid wilds of Africa, in pyramidical forms, issue the fleshy stem, destitute of leaves of the several stapelias. The stems are on every side armed with hooks like claws. The juices of this plant are so acrid, that the smart they occasion on the tongue will be sensible a long time, and even fatal, if tasted beyond a certain proportion. Nature has well marked it of the natural order, the lurid, or poisonous, for the corolla, which is deeply cleft into five segments, is of a dusky purple, and dingy yellow, and speckled like the belly of a serpent, besides being fringed with hairs, which give to this flower something of an animal appearance. It has likewise so strong a scent, resembling carrion, that Upon viewing the heavens during a clear night, blow-flies in abundance hover round it, and mis- we discover a pale irregular light, and a number taking the corolla for flesh, deposit there their eggs, of stars whose mingled rays form the luminous which are soon converted into real maggots, add-tract called the milky way. The stars themselves ing to the horror of the scene, some being seen are at too great a distance to be perceived by the writhing among the purple hairs of the flower, naked eye; and among those which are visible and others already dead for want of food-the veg- with a good telescope there are spaces apparently etable in this rare instance deceiving and overcom- filled with others in immense numbers. Many ing the animal creation. whitish spots or tracts, called nebulæ, are visible in different parts of the heavens, which are supposed to be milky ways at an inconceivable distance.

STARS, FIXED. The universe, so far as human observation has extended, consists of infinite or boundless space, in which are numberless fixed stars, of the nature, bulk, and properties of the sun; but because they are at such immense distances from the earth, they appear to our eyes only as so many beautiful shining points. They are called fixed stars, because they do not change, like the planets, their relative position; and they are distinguished from the planets by their twinkling light. It is supposed that the fixed stars have primary and secondary planets revolving round them, as the

The magnitudes of the fixed stars appear to be different from one another, which difference may arise either from a diversity in their real magnitudes, or distances; or from both these causes acting together. The difference in the apparent magnitude of the stars is such as to admit of their being divided into six classes. The largest are called stars of the first magnitude, and the least which are visible to the naked eye, stars of the sixth magnitude. Stars that cannot be seen without the help of glasses are called telescopic stars.

Some stars are subject to periodical variations in apparent magnitude; at one time being of the second, or third, and at another, of the fifth or sixth. Some have alternately been noticed to appear and disappear; being visible for several months, and again invisible. Several stars mentioned by ancient astronomers are not now to be found; and some are now observed, which are not mentioned in the ancient catalogues.

It is conjectured that the fixed stars are at such an immense distance, that light, which moves at the rate of 100,000 miles per second, would be nearly one year and a quarter in passing from the nearest fixed star to the earth; and a cannon ball discharged from a 24 pounder with a velocity of 19 miles a minute, would be 760,000 years passing from the nearest star. Sound, which moves at the rate of 13 miles a minute, would be about 1,128,000 years in passing through the same space.

STATUARY. A branch of sculpture, said to be the invention of Dædalus, amidst other productions of ingenious talents: others assert him to have been only the improver of an art known long before his time, and that he was the first who endeavored to give the appearance of motion and action to figures.

The Phenicians are said to have been the first who erected statues in honor of their gods; but, if we believe the accounts generally given of the Phenician worship, the religious statuary of that nation did not exhibit human forms, but merely pointed stones or other symbolical expressions of their divinities.

STATUES. Figures of men, derived from carving wood, cutting stone, or casting in a mould. Statuary is an art which has made itself respectable by its excellence, for it displays every variety of position, action, and passion, with accuracy and taste. Most savage tribes represent their gods and demons in this way; and, as the art rose, the statues of the gods filled the temples of the ancient world.

Dr. Herschel has calculated that the distance of the remotest nebulæ, exceeds that of the nearest fixed star at least three hundred thousand times. Upon this fact, he thus remarks; that from facts well known, it might be proved, the rays of light, which enter the eye from the star Sirius, cannot have been less than six years and four months and a half in their passage to the observer. Hence, he says, it follows that when we see an object at a calculated distance, at which one of these very remote nebulæ may still be perceived, the rays of light which convey its image to the eye, must have been almost two millions of years on their way;ges, by their spring, resume their tone and former and that consequently so many years ago, this object must already have had an existence in the sidereal heavens, in order to send out those rays by which we now perceive it.

But when we have reached the utmost distance to which the power of our instruments can penetrate, who will say, that we are approaching any limits of the creation? Who will say that if the disembodied spirit should travel forward through eternity, numberless systems would not be continually spreading before it?

STATURE. The height of an animal. It is a known fact that people in younger life are taller in the morning than at night, owing to the pressure of the upper parts in the daytime while the person is in an upright posture, on the cartilages between the vertebre of the neck and back; which cartila

dimensions in the horizontal position of the body during sleep; the incumbent weight or pressure, being, for that interval, and during that posture, removed. But it is not so with the aged: the cartilages in them are grown dry, and thin, and springless; by reason whereof their stature will constantly continue at the lowest pitch. And as the interstices of the vertebre are consequently enlarged, the head, by its weight, will moreover naturally fall forward, and a bending in the back ensue. Hence old persons are never so tall as they were in their prime.

We cannot contemplate the fixed stars without exclaiming, How inconceivably great and wise and good is the Being who made, governs, and STEAM. Aqueous gas, created by heat applied sustains them! We behold not one world only, to water; and at 212, the boiling point, every cubic but a system of worlds, regulated and kept in mo- inch of water produces rather more than a cubic tion by the sun; not one sun and one system only, foot of steam, and is then equivalent in elastic force but millions of suns and systems, multiplied with- to a column of mercury 30 inches high. It raises out end, perpetually submissive to the laws which the mercury to 40 by adding 14 degrees more of govern them. Such a view of the material crea- heat, and every cubic foot expands to 5, and at 285 tion may well induce us to adopt, as our own, the of heat it raises the mercury 95 inches; and every language of the royal Psalmist of Israel, and say-cubic foot of steam expands to 40, or 72,000 times When I consider thy heavens, the work of thy the original bulk of water. fingers, the moon and the stars which thou hast ordained; what is man, that thou art mindful of him? or the son of man, that thou visitest him?'

STARCH. If a quantity of wheat flour is formed into a paste, and then held under a very small stream of water, kneading continually till the water runs off from it colorless, the flour by this process is divided into two distinct constituents. A tough substance of a dirty white color, called gluten, remains in the hand; the water is at first milky, but soon deposits a white powder, which is known by the name of starch.

STEAM ENGINE. This is the name of a machine that derives its moving power from the elasticity and condensibility of the steam of boiling water. It is allowed to be the most valuable present that the arts of life have ever received from the philosopher, and the most curious object that human ingenuity has yet offered to his contemplation. The mariner's compass, the telescope, the microscope, spectacles, gunpowder, and many other most useful servants to the weakness and necessities of man, were the productions of chance, and we do not exactly know to whom we are indebted

for them; but the steam engine was, in the veryments of various kinds. In Chemistry it is called beginning, the result of reflection, and the produc-a carburet of iron.

it when heated to redness: also, if it is heated to a lower temperature than redness, and suddenly cooled, it becomes the most elastic of all the metals. It is of a darker color when polished, and retains its polish much longer, not being so liable to oxydate.

tion of a very ingenious mind; and every improve- Its hardness is greater than that of iron; and its ment that it has received, and every alteration in most valuable property is, that it can be made its construction and principles, were also the re-harder than any other metal, by suddenly cooling sults of philosophical study. The steam engine was, beyond all doubt, invented by the Marquis of Worcester, in the reign of Charles II.; but it does not appear, that the noble inventor could ever interest the public either in favor of this or his other discoveries. Captain Savary, a person of great ingenuity and ardent mind, saw, however, the reality and practicability of the marquis's project, and, about the year 1696, erected several machines of this kind. The tin mines of Cornwall standing in great need of hydraulic assistance, Mr. Savary was much engaged in projects for draining them by his steam engine. This made its construction and principles well known among the machinists and engineers of that neighborhood, some of whom made successful attempts to improve it. Among these was a Mr. Newcomen, who erected one upon a new principle, that is now called Newcomen's engine. Mr. Keane Fitzgerald also made an important addition to the steam engine; but to Mr. Watt, of Glasgow, and Mr. Boulton, of Soho, it is indebted for its present state of excellence. These eminent mechanics and philosophers have been long associated in the advantages that are derived from the patent right; and the alliance is equally honorable to both.

Steel is manufactured by two processes, one in which the steel is made from pig iron at once in the finery: this is practised in Germany, and is called natural steel. Cemented steel is formed by stratifying bars of iron with powdered charcoal in a close vessel, and by keeping the mass at a brisk red heat for a longer or shorter time, depending upon the size of the bars. This process is called conversion. The test of the conversion being complete is its blistered appearance, from which it has been called blistered steel. As the steel in this change does not undergo fusion, all the imperfections in the mechanical texture of the iron will still be found to exist in the steel.

Cast steel is blistered steel fused and cast into ingots, which are afterwards drawn into rods by the hammer, or by rolling. By this change the steel becomes much harder, and of course entirely free from those seams and other defects which exist in the blistered steel: this is what renders cast steel so much better for polished goods: for when blistered steel is attempted to be polished, the surface is seen to abound with numerous spots, arising from mechanical defects in the bars previous to

These invaluable machines are of most extensive use, being employed in drawing water from coalpits and mines, in supplying cities with water, and in working metals: in short, in every demand of manufacture on a great scale, they offer us an in-conversion. defatigable drudge, whose strength has no bounds. The greatest mechanical project that ever engaged the attention of man, was on the point of being executed by this machine. The states of Holland were treating with Messrs. Watt and Boulton, for draining the Haerlem Meer, and even reducing the Zuyder Zee; but the unsettled state of public affairs in that country, has hitherto prevented the execution of the plan, which, there is no doubt, will be fully accomplished at some more auspicious period.

To such amazing perfection has this 'chef-d' œuvre' of human art at length been brought, that the consumption of one bushel of good pit coal will enable it to raise 6000 hogheads of water ten feet high, or to do the work of ten horses for one hour.

STEAM NAVIGATION. An application of the steam engine to the propulsion of vessels in the water, by rotating water wheels at the sides. They were contrived by Fulton, of New York, about 1807, and are now adopted as a safe and perfect means of Navigation, independent of wind, tide, and current; engines of 100 horse power propelling vessels of 200 or 300 tons ten to eighteen miles an hour.

STEEL. In the Arts, a most valuable metal, consisting of iron combined with carbon. It is chiefly used for edge tools, and other cutting instruments, and from its fine polish is used in orna

Cast steel works much harder under the hammer, and will not bear much more than a red beat, without breaking in pieces under it. This, however, is more especially confined to that commonly made; since cast steel may be inade which will bear a white and even a welding beat; but it requires a much greater heat for its fusion, and would in consequence be sold at a much higher price.

The refuse of blistered or common steel is generally melted into cast steel; but this is not of the best quality. The best cast steel is made by melting the bars of blistered steel, which, for this purpose, are a little more converted than for ordinary purposes, in order to give the steel a little more carbon than if it were used in the state of blistered steel. The bars are broken into small pieces, for the purpose of stowing the greatest quantity in the crucible.

STEELYARD. An instrument depending on the principle that equal multiples of matter and motion produce equal momenta; so that a lever revolving at the centre, and moving a body at one inch from the centre equal to six pounds, will be balanced by another body of one pound six inches from the centre.

STEELING. In Cutlery, the lying on a piece of steel upon a larger mass of iron, to make that part which is to receive the edge, harder than the The body of an axe may very well be of

rest.

iron, as it never comes into use to cut with, and perhaps is stronger, and less liable to break, than if of steel; but it must have a quantity of steel at that part where the edge is to be made.

STEERAGE. In a Ship, that part of the ship abaft where the tiller traverses between decks. In merchant ships, it is the space between the companion ladder, and captain's cabin. In large ships of war, it is used as a hall, through which it is necessary to pass to or from the great cabin. In merchant ships, it is generally the habitation of the inferior officers and ship's crew.

tion; but few, very few, it is presumed, could have followed a speaker through all the meanders of rhetoric, and noted with precision, every syllable, as it dropped from his mouth, in a manner legible even to themselves.

To arrive at such consummate perfection in the art was reserved for more modern times, and is still an acquisition by no means general.

In every language of Europe, till about the close of the sixteenth century, the Roman plan of abbreviating (viz. substituting the initials or radicals, with the help of arbitraries for words) appears to have been employed. Till then no regular alphabet had been invented expressly for stenography, STEERING. In Navigation, the directing a when an English gentleman of the name of Willis vessel from one place to another by means of the invented and published one. His plan was soon helm and rudder. He is held the best steersman altered and improved, or at least pretended to be who causes the least motion in putting the helm so. One alteration succeeded another; and at inover to and again, and who best keeps the ship tervals, for a series of years past, some men of from making yaws, that is, from running in and ingenuity and application have composed and pubout. The perfection of steering, indeed, consists lished systems of stenography, and doubtless have in a vigilant attention to the motion of a ship's head, themselves reaped all the advantages that attend it. so as to check every deviation from the line of her But among the various methods that have been course in the first instant of motion, and in apply-proposed, and the different plans that have been ing as little of the power of the helm as possible. adopted by individuals, none has yet appeared forBy this she will run more uniformly in a straight tunate enough to gain general approbation; or path; whereas, if a greater effort of the helm is proved sufficiently simple, clear, and concise, to be employed it will produce a greater declination from universally studied and practised. the course, increase the difficulty of steering, and make a crooked and irregular track through the water. There are three methods of steering. 1. By any mark on the land, so as to keep the ship even by it. 2. By the compass, which is by keeping the ship's head on such a rhomb or point of the compass, as best leads to port. 3. To steer as one is bidden, or conned, which, in a great ship, is the duty of him who is taking his turn at the helm. It is the duty of the steersman to watch the head of the ship, by the land, by clouds, and by the heavenly bodies; because, though the course is in general regulated by the compass, the vibrations of the needle are not so instantly perceived as the sallies of the ship's head to the right or the left.

STEREOTYPES. In Letter-press Printing, fixed types. Instead of movable types, which permit the pages of a book to be taken to pieces when the impressions are made, it has been contrived to fix them, so that, when once set, they remain, like copper plates, for all future occasions. This is done in two ways; either what is technically called the form, (that is, the letters of a certain number of pages,) are cast in one solid body of metal; or, the types being composed, as usual, they are cemented together.

The objects of this invention, which is at present carried into execution by Didot, of Paris, are two; the one, extreme correctness; and the other, an economy which may render the books, so printed, STENOGRAPHY. Short hand. The art of purchasable at a rate comparatively cheap. The stenography, or short writing, was known and first is attained by avoiding those accidents which practised by most of the ancient civilized nations. frequently render letter-press imperfect, even after The Egyptians, who were distinguished for learn- every attention to its correctness has been paid; as ing at an early period, at first expressed their words the falling out of types, and their being misplaced by a delineation of figures called hieroglyphics. A by those who restore them: and farther, by securmore concise mode of writing seems to have been ing to all future editions the advantages thus laboafterwards introduced, in which only a part of the riously accomplished in the first. The second, that syinbol or picture was drawn. This answered the of economy, is promoted by the success of the purpose of short hand in some degree. After them first; for the expenditure necessary on one edition, the Hebrews, the Greeks, and the Romans, adopt-answers for all the rest: but, as in this plan, the ed different methods of abbreviating their words first edition is much more costly than in the ordinand sentences, suited to their respective languages. ary method, this invention, applied to books that The initials, the finals, or radicals, often served for may never be printed a second time, or which, if whole words; and various combinations of these repeatedly printed, may be as repeatedly altered, sometimes formed a sentence. Arbitrary marks is the reverse of frugal. were likewise employed to determine the meaning, and to assist legibility; and it seems probable that every writer, and every author of antiquity, had some peculiar method of abbreviation, calculated to facilitate the expression of his own sentiments and intelligible only to himself.

It is also probable, that some might by these means take down the heads of a discourse or ora

STEREOMETER. An instrument lately invented in France, for measuring the volume of a body, however irregular, without plunging it in any liquid. If the capacity of a vessel, or, which is the same thing, the volume of air contained in that vessel, be measured, when the vessel contains air only, and also when the vessel contains a body

1

whose volume is required to be known, the volume | Spain, by great chance, a pair of silk stockings. of air ascertained by the first measurement, deduct- His son, king Edward VI. was presented with ing the volume ascertained by the second, will be pair of long Spanish silk stockings by Sir Thomas the volume of the body itself. Again, if it be ad- Gresham, and the present was then much taken mitted as a law, that the volume of any mass of air notice of. Hence it should seem, that the invention be inversely as the pressure to which it is subject- of knit silk stockings originally came from Spain. ed, the temperature being supposed constant, it Others relate, that one William Rider, an apprenwill be easy to deduce, from the mathematical re- tice on London bridge, seeing at the house of an lations of quantity, the whole bulk, provided the Italian merchant a pair of knit worsted stockings difference between the two bulks under two known from Mantua, took the hint, and made a pair expressures be obtained by experiment. actly like them, which he presented to William earl of Pembroke, and that they were the first of that kind worn in England, anno 1564.