with great sensibility, evinced in the ready tickling | shock, and prevent the impression produced by of this part, and the effects respectively of hot or them from being too sensible and painful. If, by cold applications to it. unaccustomed friction, blisters are formed on the For the better understanding of the differences hands or feet, and we peel off immediately the in the delicacy of touch, in different regions of the skin which has been raised up, it is the outer or skin, as well as of its other offices, we shall initiate scarf-skin only that is removed; the true skin, red our readers into the secrets of its structure. In and tender, is seen beneath, sometimes with a very doing this we hope not to alarm them by any ca-thin layer of colorless mucus on it, and sometimes balistic phrases, or hard words from the Medical entirely denuded. This serves both to show the Lexicon. The skin, as commonly seen by us in a distinct nature of the two membranes, or coats, healthy and natural state, is not one membrane, or composing the skin; and that the inner is the layer, covering the inward parts. We ought to really important one, while the outer, or horny, has represent it to ourselves as composed of two mem- no sensibility or vitality, and is merely a shield to branes, with a soft semi-gelatinous layer interven- the former. It is therefore thinner where the ing. The deepest, or that next to, and immediate-touch is most delicate, as at the ends of the fingers. ly covering the flesh, is tolerably firm and resisting; Independent of its being the seat of the sense and, at the same time, somewhat elastic. It ex- of touch, the skin has other offices by which it is hibits numerous holes, through which pass from closely connected with the stomach in digestion, its inner or lower surface to its upper and outer and the lungs in breathing. We must remember one, a vast number of nerves and vessels, (some that it does not merely cover the body entirely, carrying blood, some a colorless fluid) of thread- like the shell does the egg, but that it is continued like fineness, which are then spread in a reticulat- into the nostrils and mouth, and becomes, by a ed, or net-like fashion, over this upper surface, so slight change, the membrane which lines the as completely to cover it. The proof of this is stomach and the lungs. The surface of the tongue seen in the fact, that although this membrane or will give us no bad idea of the true skin, when layer of the skin has of itself little or no color or the outer or scarf is removed. Little prominent sensibility, yet it is impossible to apply a pin's point buds, as it were, are seen in both the tongue and to any part of the surface without its producing the skin; they are called papillæ, and are formed sensation, and, if carried deep enough, drawing by a projection outwards of little knots of fine blood. The vessels and nerves thus penetrating, vessels and nerves, which have perforated the and spread over it, bear the same relation to this membrane, that embroidery composed of thread closely worked and crossed in various directions would to the muslin which served for its ground. Thus furnished, this part is called the true skin, because it is the seat of touch; and on, and through it, are performed all the processes in which the skin, in general, is supposed to bear a part. Exterior to this, and spread over it, is the soft semi-gelatinous, or pulpy layer, already mentioned. It is the seat of color, being white, or nearly so, in the European races, and black in the African. It is also much thicker in the latter than the former. In all the races, the true skin is of the same color; the difference consists in the mucous, or pulpy layer above it-just as if different pieces of embroidered muslin, originally all white, were each to receive a different color by rubbing over it a semi-fluid varnish, which should only cover the outside, without penetrating through, or dyeing the tissue of the muslin or the thread used in the embroidery.

External to this mucous, or soft layer, is spread the outer, or scarf-skin, or cuticle. This is the last of the membranes, or coats; it is very thin, of a hard, horny texture, similar to the nails, and transparent, so as to show the color of the layer beneath it, already described. Some have compared it, erroneously, to scales; but it is a continuous membrane, which may indeed cast off small plates, or scales, as we see in certain diseases, or after very strong friction of the skin. It exhibits numerous perforations for the hair, and orifices through which oozes out the fluid of perspiration, formed from the minute capillary tubes of the true skin already described. As the part which is in immediate contact with external substances, the scarf-skin serves to obtund the violence of their

membrane from its lower side, and are even visible and felt through the scarf-skin when it is constricted by cold, forming what is called goose skin.

The resemblance between the skin and the membrane lining the mouth and stomach, almost amounts to identity in some animals of the polypus tribe; since, if they are turned inside out, what was skin serves for stomach, and the membrane of the stomach is converted into skin. The connexion between, and even sameness of, the skin and the membrane to which the air is applied in the lungs, in breathing, is evinced in the circumstance of the same or outer surface of the body serving for both purposes, as in the leech. It has no lungs, and the air acts through its skin, on the blood.

Some cold blooded animals, such as frogs, will survive longer the entire extirpation of their lungs, than they would the removal of their skin. They barely live if air be only supplied to the former, and not to the latter. In other words, they must breathe both by their lungs and their skin.

In warm blooded animals, particularly in the human species, the skin exhales the same kinds of vapor, afterwards condensed into sweat, and air, as are given out in breathing from the lungs, and absorbs or allows to pass in through the mouths of very fine hair-like tubes, (in the true skin,) air and vapor, like what is necessary to be drawn into the lungs in breathing.

In addition to the parts already mentioned, we meet in certain regions of the skin with small bodies like millet seeds, called sebaceous glands, interspersed with the papillæ or projecting blood vessels and nerves, and from which comes an oily and inflammable fluid. It is this which makes the water collect in drops on the skin when we come out of the bath.

If we raise, by means of a blister, the scarf-skin, | in every one so much partiality to himself, which and peel it off, the true skin beneath, as already re- while it leads him to fix his view chiefly on his marked, will be exposed, and in this instance, red own personal merits, and to magnify them in his and inflamed. Experience shows that certain own estimation, prevents him from sufficiently acmedicines applied to this denuded surface will pro-knowledging the worth and qualifications of others. duce the same effect as if taken into the stomach. Thus, for example, quinia or the active principle of the Peruvian bark, applied in this way, will cure intermittent fever; and morphia, or the active part of opium, procures ease and sleep. This is what is technically called the endermic medication. We notice it here with a view of illustrating the functions of the skin-not as a hint or direction to any person for the cure of disease.

Of all this a good man will soon be satisfied, from his own experience; and he will endeavor to guard against this injustice by judging of the pretensions of a rival, or even of an enemy, as he would have done, had there been no interference between his claim and theirs. In other words, he will endeavor to do justice to their merits; and to bring himself to love and honor the goodness and genius which have eclipsed his own. Nor will he retire in disgust from the race, because he has been SKINS. In Commerce, the membranous cov- outstripped by others; but will redouble his exererings of animals, which are converted to several tions in the service of mankind; recollecting that uses. When employed with the hair remaining if Providence has been more bountiful to others on them, they are distinguished by the names of than to him, he has left open to all the theatre of peltry and fur; when dressed for writing, painting, virtue; whence the merits of individuals are deterand other purposes, by those of parchment and mined, not by their actual attainments, but by the vellum; and when tanned, by the general name of use and improvement which they make of those leather, or the particular name of the leather man-advantages which their situation has afforded them. ufactured, or of the animal from which it was obtained; as morocco and calf skin.

When we are tempted to depreciate the worth and talents of others, we should recollect, that we not only do injustice to our fellow-creatures, but SKULL. The bony part of the head, fashioned offer an affront to God; and that in allowing ourin the form of a globe, and consisting of three di-selves to feel a secret satisfaction in those events visions, namely, the sinciput, or fore part; the occiput, or hind part; and the vertex, or crown.

that may lower their reputation, or circumscribe their usefulness, we act in opposition to the principles of truth and benevolence. There is no indiSKUNK. An animal of the weasel kind, pecu-vidual with whose situation are not connected some liar to North America, remarkable for emitting a duties and advantages; and when, in any case, we fetid smell in self defence. injuriously attempt to lessen his reputation, we are guilty of an act of baseness and injustice, of a naSKY. The blue expanse, otherwise called heav-ture far more aggravated than if we had purloined en, and the firmament. With respect to its color, his property. Leonardo da Vinci, and M. de la Hire, have ex- Who would not feel alarmed at the thought of plained it as resulting from the mixture of white incurring the criminality of narrowing the usefuland black, which is produced when we see theness, and of diminishing the happiness, of a single dark regions of the atmosphere through the light individual, however slender his talents, or obscure of the sun but Sir Isaac Newton attributes it to his condition? Are not our own failures in duty the vapors, which, beginning to condense, have sufficiently numerous without implicating ourselves had time sufficient to reflect the most reflexible in the responsibilities of others? Shall we degrade rays, that is, the violet ones, but not enough to re- our common nature by peevishly detracting from flect the rest. the gifts and graces with which God has adorned and distinguished any of his creatures? Do we not consult our own happiness by cherishing that charity which suffereth long and is kind, which envieth not; which vaunteth not itself, which is not puffed up,-which thinketh no evil, which rejoiceth not in iniquity, but rejoiceth in the truth?

One thing is certain, that, whatever be the cause of the blue color of that space in which the stars move, and which bounds all the visual prospects of this globe, the color that we see by night, and that which we see by day, are the same; and that the apparent difference consists in this, that, in the latter case, the light is between it and our eyes; and, in the former, the light is at our backs.

If it be our duty to exercise candor, in forming an opinion of the character and abilities of others, it is surely meet that we should put the most favorSLANDER. In the race of human life, it often able construction on their intentions, and allude happens that our passions and our apparent inter- with charitable feeling to their motives. These ests would lead us to detract from the moral and are so far removed from our observation, that we intellectual merits of a rival; and even when we can only ascertain their nature from their effects; are restrained by principle and conscience from and even here we are so liable to mistake, that we the arts of defamation, there may be a secret satis- are bound to speak of them under the impression faction in seeing him lowered in public estimation. that the heart is known to God alone. We ought There is no situation in which we are free from to do so, because it is probable, from many considthis temptation to injustice, because there is no sit-erations, that the intentions, even in cases apparuation in which the feelings of malice and envy ently doubtful, may be good, or, at least, not so bad may not operate; and in which we may not see as we might imagine. When we make a due alothers of our own rank and standing, far more suc-lowance for a false conception of facts; for prejucessful and prosperous than we. There is, besides, dices formed through the influence of prevailing

fashions; for habits insensibly contracted in early years, and which it is so difficult wholly to relinquish at a subsequent period of life; we shall find that the motives of others are not so blameworthy, at least, generally, as we are apt to suppose.

Admitting, however, that they are bad, and that they proceed from malice, it belongs to Him whose prerogative it is to judge the heart, to declare that they are so. We move out of our sphere, when we presume to meddle with the peculiar province of the Almighty; nor can we be guilty of injustice in this way to others, without diminishing the sum of our own enjoyment. There is not a more unequivocal mark of our being under the influence of improper feelings ourselves, than a disposition to attribute bad designs to others; and there certainly can be no state of mind less amiable in itself, or more unfavorable to tranquillity and happiness. It becomes us to guard against its indulgence not only as it leads us to violate a duty which we owe to our neighbor, but as it debases our own feelings, and injures our own peace. Why dost thou judge thy brother? Or why dost thou set at nought thy brother? We shall all stand before the judgment seat of Christ. So, then, every one of us shall give an account of himself to God. Let us not therefore judge one another any more; but judge this rather, that no man put a stumbling block or an occasion to fall, in his brother's way.'

without necessity, without subserving any end of justice or benevolence, without profit to myself, and without any pleasure but that of a deeply depraved heart.

We become accessory to the crime of the slanderer when we patiently listen to him. Did we habitually repel with indignation the first whisper unfavorable to the reputation of our neighbor, we should at once deserve and obtain the gratitude of the person whose character we vindicated, and arrest the progress of the slanderer. But mankind too generally seem to feel a secret satisfaction in listening to the recital of what is censurable in their fellow-creatures; as if their self approbation rose in proportion as others' were made to fall; or, as if that censorious spirit which is so natural to them was regaled by an account of the real or imputed failings of the species. Thus encouragement is given to the destroyers of character and reputation, and to the producers of suspicion and discord among mankind.

To be beloved by others, and to feel that we are not unworthy of being thus beloved, are chief elements in the happiness of man. But it is the object of the slanderer, and the direct tendency of his conduct, to deprive us of this happiness.

The object of the slanderer is the destruction, not of property, nor of life, but what is far dearer and more valuable than either;-character and reputation. Our reputation is high or low, according to the place which we hold in human estimation. It altogether rests on the good opinion and affections of others. It is justly more precious to every man than silver and gold, and as a source of enjoyWe are chargeable with slander when we fabri-ment, second only to the approbation of conscience. cate tales of falsehood to lessen, and, if possible to destroy, the reputation of others, or when we take pleasure in rehearsing such tales, though we are not their authors. Those who put such tales into circulation may be much more blameable than the inventors, inasmuch as they lend them the weight Our character also, for trustworthiness, depends of their character and influence. They are not upon the good opinion of others. Without this the forgers; but they are the persons who give the character, the great majority of persons could not forgeries currency, and without whose instrumen- procure a subsistence. It is necessary in all the tality they would remain innoxious. Their motive offices of human life, and in all the departments of is often malicious, proceeding from a disposition the business of this world. It must therefore be to interfere in the concerns of others; or, from the dear to every one whose means of living and of wish to lower them beneath their accustomed level, supporting himself and his family, almost entirely that they themselves may rise in the same propor- rest on his reputation for honesty and integrity. tion. What conduct can be more base, more ex-Deprive him of this reputation, that is, succeed in pressive of depravity of heart, or more ruinous to making the world believe that he is void of princithe peace of society? They are accordingly rank-ple, and unworthy of confidence, and you take ed in Scripture with the most criminal of mankind. bread, comfort, and respectability from himself 'Thou shalt not go up and down as a tale-bearer and his dependents. But is it not the object of the among thy people; neither shalt thou stand against slanderer, at least, is it not the tendency, and may the blood of thy neighbor.' 'Let none of you suf- it not be the effect of his most criminal practice, to fer as a murderer, or as a thief, or as an evil doer, accomplish this? or as a busy body in other men's matters.'

Further; our chief instrument for usefulness in Nor is the criminality of the slanderer diminished the world, is the hold which we have upon the by the circumstance that the tale put into circula- good opinions and affections of our fellow-creation is true. His guilt may be just as great as if it tures. It is just in proportion to the estimation in were false; his motive is not less base; and his which they hold us, that we have power to influconduct in its consequences may be more mischiev-ence others, and to advance the temporal and eterous. Who has given me a title to publish to the world that failing of my neighbor which I alone have discovered? The disclosure of it may impair his usefulness and happiness for life, while its concealment could have injured no one; and his activity and talents, exerted under the purifying influence of repentance, might be employed with greater benefit to mankind. I become the instrument of ruin to him and to his family, of sorrow to his friends and connexions; and I accomplish this

nal interests of man. Deprive any individual of this moral strength, and what good can he achieve? In the midst of crowds he is solitary; no man regards him; and it may even prove a hinderance to what is highly beneficial, that it was he who first proposed it. To be reduced to this condition is indeed a most grievous calamity. If the chief designs of man during his residence on earth, is to glorify God, by suggesting and countenancing deeds of benevolence and patriotism, and by doing

good to the extent of his opportunity, and, if in the exercise of this power he experiences pure and perpetual enjoyment,-what is the wickedness, and what the criminality, of the person who succeeds in whole or in part in frustrating this design of the Creator, and in destroying the means which would have increased the virtue and happiness of mankind?

ble extent that may be necessary. The drains of slaughter-houses are often connected with pits or reservoirs, by which means large quantities of excellent manure are accumulated.

SLAVE. In Warfare, one absolutely in the power of another; in Commerce, one who is the property of another. The word is derived from Sclavus, the name of a people of Scythia, whom Charlemagne condemned to perpetual bondage, and who are famous in the history of Europe by the title of Sclavonians.

SLEDGE. A carriage without wheels, used for carrying ploughs or other implements from place to place; also a carriage in Russia, fitted for going along the snow. In Lapland the sledges are drawn by reindeer.

Our reputation also is in many cases an useful restraint upon us. I do not say that in the absence of every better motive, the conduct and actions proceeding from this, are entitled to the name of virtue. But if character be an instrument by which we may glorify God, and increase the happiness of man, it must be lawful to desire it, to guard against the loss of it when acquired, and, in certain circumstances, to refrain from things which in themselves are neither morally good or evil, merely from regard to our reputation. In very many cases, mankind are restrained from doing SLEEP. That state wherein the body seems what is bad, and encouraged in the performance perfectly at rest, and external objects act on the of what is good, by a concern for their reputation. organs of sense, without exciting their usual sen It is the object of the slanderer to remove this re-sations. Sleep is necessary not only to animals, straint, to take away this stimulus, and to afford the evil passions of his fellows wider scope in the production of sin and misery.

The mischief which he produces is great, in proportion to the respectability, the usefulness, and the eminence of the persons whom he attacks. Are they ministers of the gospel, whose influence chiefly rests on their personal reputation and character? What a barrier may he be instrumental in raising up, to render inefficient all efforts to win and save souls. Are they magistrates whom he attacks, whose character should be unsullied, and a great part of whose usefulness rests on the estimation in which they are held? Then the slanderer is the means of producing greater mischief than he can be aware of, till he appears before the tribunal of the Eternal Judge.

Finally, the slanderer is under the frown, and exposed to the indignation of Almighty God. Lord, who shall abide in thy tabernacle? Who shall dwell in thy holy hill? He that walketh uprightly, and worketh righteousness, and speaketh the truth in his heart. He that backbiteth not with his tongue, nor doth evil to his neighbor, nor taketh up a report against his neighbor.'

SLATE. A bluish fossil stone, which is so soft that it can be cut into squares, and used either for the roofs of houses or other purposes.

SLAUGHTER-HOUSE. In Rural Practice, the place were neat cattle and other animals are killed for the butcher. In common houses for this purpose, the blood, filth, and other nastiness are left to remain upon the floors: but in those of the improved kind, the floors are laid in such a manner as to have a proper full degree of fall or declination towards the middle parts, where there is a drain made for taking away all such offensive matters, and keeping the houses quite clean and sweet, merely by pumping or throwing water upon

the floors of them.

Houses of this sort have usually the dimensions of about 22 feet in length by sixteen in width; but they may be constructed in this way to any suita

but even some of the vegetable tribes have the faculty of assuming, during the night, a position essentially different from that which they bear throughout the day. This change takes place principally towards the approach of night, in leaves and flowers; the appearance of which often varies so considerably, that the same plants can scarcely be recognised. During the night, their leaves are observed to rise or curl up, and sometimes to be pendent, according to the nature and genus of the plant, in order to protect the flowers, buds, and young stems. This period of rest is absolutely necessary to vegetables; their irritability being exhausted by the light and warmth of the day.

SLEEPLESSNESS. We extract from a recent work, The Philosophy of Sleep,' the following judicious remarks on that distressing condition of the system marked by an inability to sleep; when through the dreary watches of the 'stillest night, with all appliances and means to boot, repose is solicited in vain, and the individual rises in the morning even more exhausted than when he retired, in hopes of rest, on the preceding evening.

The work to which we are indebted for this ar ticle is one of very great interest. It is written in a pleasing style, with a sufficiency of anecdote to arrest the attention of even those who read merely for amusement; whilst they who seek for instruetion will find in the doctrines which it inculcates as to the nature and phenomena of sleep, and in the directions it lays down for obtaining sound and refreshing slumber, nearly every thing that need be said in relation to these important subjects.

'Sleep,' remarks the author, 'takes place as soon as the sensorial power which animates the mind, the volition, and the organs of the senses, is exhausted; and this exhaustion, under common circumstances, occurs at our ordinary hour of going to rest, or even sooner, if any thing, such as ish it. But the sensorial power may be increased heat, monotony, fatigue, or food, happen to dimi by various means, as in cases of physical suffering. or excited imagination, and consequently, is not

expended at the usual time. In this case, the person remains awake, and continues so till the period of its exhaustion, which may not happen for several hours after he lies down, or even not at all during the whole of that night. Now, whatever increases this power, whether it be balls, assemblies, concerts, grief, joy, or bodily pain, is prejudicial to repose. By them, the mind is exalted to a pitch of unnatural action, from which it is necessary it should descend before it can roll into the calm channel of sleep. Whatever stimulates the external senses, however slightly, may prevent sleep. Thus the ticking of a clock has this effect with very sensitive people, when unaccustomed to it, although with others it has the opposite effect; and a candle burning in the chamber is attended with the same result. Even when the eyes are shut this may take place, for the eyelids are sufficiently transparent to convey the rays of light to the retina. For the same reason, the light of day peering in at the window, may awake us from slumber, without the intervention of any other circumstance. It is said that Napoleon could never sleep if exposed to the influence of light, although, in other circumstances, slumber appeared at his bidding with surprising readiness.

It is the same with the man of vivid imagination. His fancy, instead of being shrouded in the silence of sleep, becomes more full of imagery. Thoughts, in a thousand fantastic forms, pass through the mind, whose excessive activity spurns at repose, and mocks all the endeavors of its possessor to reduce it to quiescence. Great joy will often scare away sleep for several weeks successively, but in this respect it is far inferior to grief; a fixed attack of which has been known to keep the sufferer awake for many months. Those who meditate much, seldom sleep well in the early part of the night: they lie awake perhaps for two or three hours after going to bed, and do not fall into slumber till towards morning. Persons of this description often, very improperly, lie long in bed, and are reputed lazy by early risers; although, it is probable, they actually sleep less than these early risers themselves. Long continued study, particularly at night, is highly prejudicial to sleep. Boerhaave mentions, that on one occasion, owing to this circumstance, he did not close his eyes for six weeks.

With regard to the treatment of sleeplessness, a very few words will suffice: in fact, upon this head little more can be said, than a recommendation to obviate the causes from whence it proceeds, and the effects naturally disappear. I may mention, however, that where there is no specific disease, either of body or mind, to which the want of sleep can be imputed, the person should keep himself in as cheerful a mood as possible-that he should, if his strength permits, rise early and take such exercise as to fatigue himself moderately. Studious men ought to avoid late reading; and on going to bed endeavor to abstract their minds from all intrusive ideas. They should strive to circumscribe their thoughts within the narrowest possible circle, and prevent them from becoming rambling or excursive. The more the mind is brought to turn upon a single impression, the more closely it is made to approach to the state of sleep, which is the total absence of all impressions.

Certain stimulating agents, such as tea or coffee, taken shortly before going to bed, have often the effect of preventing sleep. I would impute this to their irritative properties, which, by supplying the nervous system with fresh sensorial power, enable it to carry on uninterruptedly all its functions longer than it would otherwise do, and consequently prevent it from relapsing into slumber at the usual period. Any uneasy bodily feeling has the same effect-both preventing the accession of sleep, and arousing us from it when it has fairly taken place. Thus while moderate fatigue induces slumber, excessive fatigue, owing to the pain and irritation it necessarily occasions, drives it away. Cold is most apt to induce sleeplessness when it is partial, and only affects one organ at a time, especially the feet; for when general and very intense, it sometimes In some cases of restlessness, sleep may be prohas the opposite operation, and gives rise to drow-cured by the person getting up and walking for a siness. Sleeplessness is sometimes produced by a few minutes about the room. It is not easy to exsense of burning heat in the soles of the feet and plain on what principle this acts, but it is certain palms of the hands, to which certain individuals that by such means sleep sometimes follows, where are subject some time after lying down. This previously it had been solicited in vain. It is a comseems to proceed from a want of perspiration in mon practice with some people to read themselves those parts, owing, in general, to a bad state of the into slumber, but dangerous accidents have somedigestion. Mental emotions, such as anger, joy, times arisen from this habit, in consequence of the sorrow, love, or deep study, are unfavorable to re-lighted candle setting fire to the curtains, or coverpose. If a man, as soon as he lays his head upon ing of the bed. A safer and more effectual way the pillow, can manage to get rid of his ideas, he is is to get another person to read; in which case morally certain to fall asleep. There are many in- sleep will very generally take place, especially if dividuals so happily constituted that they can do the subject in question is not one of much interest, so without any effort: so far from being tortured and read in a dry, monotonous manner. When by intrusive thoughts, their ideas take flight with-sleeplessness proceeds from the heat of the weathout ceremony, and do not visit them till they are er, the person should lie very lightly covered, and required on awakening. It is very different with let the air circulate freely through his room. When those whom an excess of care, imagination, or it arises from a burning in the soles or palms, these study overwhelms with its burden. The sorrowful parts should be bathed with cold vinegar and waman, above all others, has the most need of sleep; ter, both before going to bed and during the existbut far from breathing its benignant influence over him, it flies away, and leaves him to the communionship of his own sad thoughts.

"His slumbers-if he slumbers-are not sleep,
But a continuance of enduring thought.'

ence of the heat; which usually occurs two or three hours after lying down. Attention must also be paid to the stomach and bowels, as this species of sleeplessness generally proceeds from a disordered state of these organs. Hence, intemperance in