of St. Peter at Rome; and as Leo was carrying on that magnificent and expensive fabric, his grant was founded on the same pretence.

with the utmost indifference the operations of an obscure friar, who, in the heart of Germany, carried on a scholastic disputation in a barbarous style. Little did he apprehend, or Luther himself dream, that the effects of this quarrel would be so fatal to the papal see.

Tetzel, a Dominican Friar, of licentious morals, but of an active spirit, was the principal person employed in retailing these indulgences in Saxony, He, assisted by the monks of his order, executed The solicitations, however, of Luther's adversathe commission with zeal and success, but with ries, who were exasperated to an high degree by little discretion and decency; and though, by the boldness with which he animadverted on their magnifying excessively the benefit of their indul- writings, together with the surprising progress gences, and by disposing of them at a very low which his opinions made in different parts of price, they carried on, for some time, an extensive Germany, roused at last the attention of the court and lucrative traffic among the credulous and the of Rome, and obliged Leo to take measures for the ignorant; the extravagance of the assertions, as security of the church against an attack that now well as the irregularities in their conduct, came at appeared too serious to be despised. For this end, last to give general offence. The princes and no- he summoned Luther to appear at Rome, within bles were irritated at seeing their vassals drained sixty days, before the auditor of the chamber, and of so much wealth, in order to replenish the trea- the inquisitor-general, Prierias, whom he empowsury of a profuse pontiff. Men of piety regretted ered jointly to examine his doctrines, and to decide the delusion of the people, who being taught to concerning them. He wrote, at the same time, to rely for the pardon of their sins on the indulgen- the elector of Saxony, beseeching him not to proces which they purchased, did not think it incum-tect a man whose heretical and profane tenets were bent on them either to study the doctrines taught so shocking to pious ears; and enjoined the proby genuine Christianity, or to practise the duties vincial of the Augustinians to check, by his authorwhich it enjoins. Even the most unthinking were ity, the rashness of an arrogant monk, which shocked at the scandalous behavior of Tetzel brought disgrace upon the order of St. Augustine, and his associates, who often squandered in drunk- and gave offence and disturbance to the whole enness, gaming, and low debauchery, those sums church. which were piously bestowed in hopes of obtain- Nor did this spirit of opposition to the doctrines ing eternal happiness; and all began to wish that and usurpations of the Romish church break out some check were given to this commerce, no less in Saxony alone; an attack no less violent, and detrimental to society than destructive to religion. occasioned by the same cause, was made upon Such was the favourable juncture, and so dis- them about this time, in Switzerland. The Franposed were the minds of his countrymen to listen ciscans being intrusted with the promulgation of to his discourses, when Martin Luther first began indulgences in that country, executed their comto call in question the efficacy of indulgences, and mission with the same indiscretion and rapaciousto declaim against the vicious lives and false doc-ness, which had rendered the Dominicans so oditrines of the persons employed in promulgating ous in Germany. They proceeded, nevertheless, them. He soon acquired great reputation, not only for his piety, but for his love of knowledge, and his unwearied application to study. The great progress he made in his study of the Scriptures, augmented so much the fame both of his sanctity and his learning, that Frederic, elector of Saxony, having founded an university at Wittemberg on the Elbe, the place of his residence, Luther was chosen first to teach philosophy, and afterwards theology there; and discharged both offices in such a manner that he was deemed the chief ornament of that society.

with uninterrupted success, till they arrived at Zurich. There Zuinglius, a man not inferior to Luther himself, in zeal and intrepidity, ventured to oppose them; and being animated with a republican boldness, and free from those restraints which subjection to the will of a prince imposed on a German reformer, he advanced with more daring and rapid steps, to overturn the whole fabric of the established religion. The appearance of such a vigorous auxiliary, and the progress which he made, was, at first, matter of great joy to Luther. On the other hand, the decrees of the universities of Cologne and Louvain, which pronounced his opinions to be erroneous, afforded a great cause of triumph to his adversaries.

And from the pulpit, in the great church at Wittemberg, he inveighed against the irregularities and vices of the monks who published indulgences; he ventured to examine the doctrines which But the undaunted spirit of Luther acquired they taught, and pointed out to the people the dan- additional fortitude from every instance of opposiger of relying for salvation upon any other means tion; and pushing on his inquiries and attacks than those appointed by God in his word. The from one doctrine to another, he began to shake boldness and novelty of these opinions drew great the firmest foundations on which the wealth or attention, and being recommended by the authority power of the church were established. Leo came of Luther's personal character, and delivered with at last to be convinced, that all hopes of reclaiming a popular and persuasive eloquence, they made a him by forbearance were vain; several prelates of deep impression on the minds of his hearers. great wisdom exclaimed no less than Luther's Meanwhile, these novelties in Luther's doctrines personal adversaries, against the pope's unprecewhich interested all Germany, excited little atten-dented lenity, in permitting an incorrigible heretic, tion and no alarm in the court of Rome. Leo, who during three years had been endeavoring to fond of elegant and refined pleasures, intent upon great schemes of policy, a stranger to theological controversies, and apt to despise them, regarded

subvert every thing sacred and venerable, still to remain within the bosom of the church; the dignity of the papal see rendered the most vigorous

proceedings necessary; the new emperor, it was hoped, would support its authority; nor did it seem probable, that the elector of Saxony would so far forget his usual caution, as to set himself in opposition to their united power.

religion prevailed in England, and was favored by the sovereign; but he died at the early age of 15, in 1553; and the sceptre passed to the hands of his sister Mary, an intolerant catholic, and most cruel persecutor of the protestants. In her reign, which The college of cardinals was often assembled, in was of five years' duration, above 800 miserable order to prepare the sentence with due delibera-victims were burnt at the stake, martyrs to their tion; and the ablest canonists were consulted how religious opinions. Mary was succeeded in 1558, it might be expressed with unexceptionable for- by her sister Elizabeth, a protestant, the more mality. At last, on the 15th of June, 1520, the zealous from an abhorrence of the character of her bull, so fatal to the church of Rome, was issued. predecessor. In her reign, the religion of EngForty-one propositions, extracted out of Luther's land became stationary. The hierarchy was es works, are therein condemned as heretical, scan-tablished in its present form, by archbishops, bishdalous, and offensive to pious ears; all persons are ops, priests and deacons. The liturgy had been forbidden to read his writings, upon pain of ex-settled in the reign of Edward VI. The canons communication; such as had any of them in their are agreeable chiefly to the Lutheran tenets. custody, are commanded to commit them to the flames; he himself, if he did not, within sixty

REFUGE, CITIES OF. Places provided as days, publicly recant his errors, and burn his books, an asylum, for such as against their will should hapis pronounced an obstinate heretic; is excommu- pen to kill a mau. Of these cities there were three nicated, and delivered unto Satan for the destruc-on each side Jordan; on this side were Kedesh of tion of his flesh; and all secular princes are required, under pain of incurring the same censure, to seize his person, that he might be punished as his crimes deserved.

Nephtali, Hebron, and Schechem; beyond Jordan were Bezer, Golan, and Ramoth-Gilead. When any of the Hebrews, or strangers that dwelt in their country, happened accidentally to kill a man, This sentence, which he had for sometime ex- they might retire thither, to be out of the reach of pected, did not disconcert or intimidate Luther. the relations of the deceased, and to prepare for He boldly declared the pope to be that man of sin, their defence and justification before the judges. or antichrist, whose appearance is foretold in the The manslayer underwent two trials: first before New Testament; he declaimed against his tyran- the judges of the city of refuge to which he had ny and usurpations, with greater violence than fled; and secondly before the judges of his own ever; he exhorted all Christian princes to shake city. If found guilty, he was put to death. If off such an ignominious yoke; and boasted of his acquitted, he was not immediately set at liberty; own happiness in being marked out as the object but, to inspire a degree of horror against every inof ecclesiastical indignation, because he had ventur- voluntary homicide, he was re-conducted to the ed to assert the liberty of mankind. Nor did he place of refuge, and obliged to continue there in a confine his expressions of contempt for the papal sort of banishment till the death of the high priest. power to words alone; Leo having, in the execu- If, before this time, he ventured out, the avenger tion of the bull, appointed Luther's books to be of blood might freely kill him; but after the high burnt at Rome, he, by way of retaliation, assem- priest's death he was at liberty to go where he bled all the professors and students in the univer-pleased without molestation. The cities of refuge sity at Wittemberg, and, with great pomp, in presence of a vast multitude of spectators, cast the volumes of the canon law, together with the bull of excommunication, into the flames; and his example was imitated in several cities in Germany. Wickliff, in the middle of the fourteenth century, by an attack on the doctrines of transubstantiation, indulgences, and auricular confession, and still more by a translation of the Scriptures into the vernacular tongue, had prepared the people of England for a revolution in religious opinions; but his professed followers were not numerous. Had it not been for the intemperate passions of Henry VIII., the progress of reformation in this country would have been far less rapid. This prince being excommunicated by the pope for having divorced his queen, declared himself head of the church in England. He proceeded to abolish the monasteries, and confiscate their treasures and revenues; erecting, out of the latter, six new bishoprics and a college. Yet Henry, though a reformer, and a pope in his own kingdom, had not yet renounced the religion of Rome--he was equally an enemy to the tenets of Luther and Calvin, as to the pope's jurisdiction in England.

On the death of Henry VIII., 1549, and the accession of his son Edward VI., the protestant

were to be well supplied with water and necessary provisions; to be of easy access; to have good roads leading to them, with commodious bridges where there was occasion. The width of the roads was to be thirty-two cubits or forty-eight feet at least. At all cross-roads direction posts were erected, with an inscription pointing out the road to the cities of refuge. The 15th of Adar, which answers to our February, was appointed for the city magistrates to see that the roads were in good condition. No persons in any of these cities were allowed to make weapons, lest the relations of the deceased should be furnished with the means of gratifying their revenge.

REFUGE FOR THE DESTITUTE. A charitable institution for the temporary relief of those who are houseless and destitute.

REGIMENT. A body of men, either horse, foot, or artillery, commanded by a colonel, lieutenant-colonel, and major. Each regiment of foot is divided into companies; but the number of their companies is not fixed.

REGION, SUBTERRANEAN. The earth is not only divided on its surface into regions and

In the Romish Church, clergy that live under some rule of obedience.

REIN-DEER. Amidst the many striking marks which are every where exhibited of the supremacy of that power that called us into life, in no instance do we trace stronger proofs of his beneficence than in the formation of that animal called the rein-deer.

countries, but philosophers, who have had occasion to discourse of its inner parts, have also divided them into three distinct regions, according to their different depths from the surface. The temperature of the subterraneous parts of the globe is distinguished according to the division of these regions, but is not so regular and precise as some have supposed. The first region of the earth is very variable, both as to bounds and temperature. The second region seems for the most part cold, in comparison of the other two; but in several places, which, by reason of their distance from the surface of the earth, it would be natural to call the middle region, the temperature of the air is very different at the same seasons of the year, which shows that it depends on something more than bare depth from the surface. The third region of the earth is universally observed to be warm, but by no means regularly or uniformly: the same depth in some places, giving only a moderate warmth, while in others it gives a very considera-pend upon the services he derives from this useful ble heat.

REGIONS OF THE SEA. As some naturalists, in their descriptions of the subterraneous parts of the globe, distinguish the earth into three regions of different depths, in which different temperatures are observed; so in describing the sea, they allow it two regions; the one extending from the surface of the water, down so low as the rays of the sun can pierce, and extend their influence; and the other, from the lowest bounds of that to the bottom. It is easy to see that these regions rather regard quality than space, and that their boundaries are far from being regular, or equal in all places, and at all times. The places exposed to the hottest sunshine will have the largest upper region; those where the sun has least power will have the smallest; and the same part of the sea will have its upper region more or less deep, according to the season of the year. This upper region of the sea is always more or less hot; the lower region, except in some few particular places, is every where cold; and the water, where the upper region is large, is always remarkably still and quiet in the lower.

REGATA, or REGATTA. A kind of boat race, formerly annually held at Venice, when that city was the capital of an independent republic. The race was performed in gondolas by gondoliers. The competitors were chosen from the families of the first rank; and no competitors at the ancient Olympic Games were ever more anxious for success. The course was about four miles. The gondolas after starting, passed through the great winding canal, which divides the city into two parts, turned round a picket, and returning the same way, seized the prize, which was fixed at the acutest angle of the great canal, where it was visible by the spectators on both sides. On such occasions both the gondolas and the gondoliers were decorated in the most elegant and superb manner. Regattas, in imitation of the Venetian, have been often given on the Thames, and are still continued.

REGULARS. Soldiers regularly disciplined, and at the entire disposal of the government.

In a country where the beauties of Nature are unknown, and sterility and barrenness have established their seat, how dreadful would be the situation of its wretched inhabitants but for the advantages they enjoy from this domesticated friend! The severity of the climate, which is fatal to many quadrupeds, is the means of increasing this animal's strength; for whenever it has been transported into a more genial country, the change shortly proves destructive to its life.

The comforts of the Laplander absolutely de

race of animals; they conduct him over tracts that would otherwise be impassable, supply him with an abundance of wholesome food, and afford his body a covering from the severities of the cold.

The horns of the rein-deer resemble the American elk; and they likewise have antlers springing from the brow; it is not so tall an animal as the stag, though it is much stronger, and more calculated to endure fatigue. When they first shed their coat, their color is brown; but as the summer approaches, it begins to grow light, and varies until it becomes nearly gray; the hair upon its body is thick and long, calculated to defend it from the severity of the clime; and contrary to the rest of the deer species, the female is adorned both with antlers and horns.

There are two kinds of rein deer in Lapland; the one wild, and the other tame; the latter are chiefly used for drawing the sledges, as the former will seldom submit to their guide. The sledges are built remarkably light, and their bottoms covered with a young deer's skin, with the hair placed in a proper direction to glide over the congealed snow. The person who sits on this vehicle guides the animal with a string fastened round the horns, and encourages him to proceed by the sound of his voice, or compels him forward by the assistance of a goad. The wild breed, when harnessed, are sometimes so refractory, that their drivers find it impossible to make them proceed, and are obliged to hide themselves under their conveyance to avoid the attack it would make upon their lives. There is scarcely a part of this animal but what is serviceable to the inhabitants, and proves the beneyolence of that Power by whom it was made; its flesh, as I observed, supplies them with food; and though it does not give milk in large quantities, yet it is both nourishing and sweet. As to butter, they seldom make any; but they boil the milk with sorrel, which makes it coagulate and grow thick; they then put it into casks, or skins, and bury it in the earth as a winter's regale; but the skin is the most valuable part of this animal; it supplies the inhabitants with bedding, clothing and shoes; nay, even the blood is preserved in small casks, to make sauce with the marrow of those which are killed in the spring. The horns are sold for the purpose

of making glue; the sinews are dried, and con- where persons live under certain rules, and are verted into thread; the intestines themselves are bound by their vows to lead a religious life; at the cleaned like tripe, and are considered as an excel-Reformation, these religious houses were dissolved lent, if not a delicate, kind of food. Thus the in England, and their wealth was seized by Henry Laplander finds all his necessities amply supplied | VIII. from the means of an animal he has so much rea son to prize; and those who are in possession of a herd of these creatures, envy not the honors or riches of the great.

The Rein-deer, like the hind, goes better than eight months with young, and generally brings forth about the middle of May; it yields milk from that time to the end of October, and is driven from its pasture to be milked both morning and night. It does not come to perfection until it is four years old, and never lives longer than fifteen.

The fatigue which the rein-deer is able to undergo, increases the estimation in which it is held, for it can trot fifty miles upon a stretch, without requiring either to stop or bait; though sometimes its strength is so far exhausted, that at the close of a journey it falls sick and dies.

REMAINS, ORGANIC. One of the first observations which were made after the distinction of rocky masses, in reference to their component parts, was the almost invariable order of relative position which the different species maintain with respect to each other. Different rocks are seen piled upon one another in mountain ranges; and, in digging into the depths of the earth, a perpetual and varying succession of strata is discovered. But no change of place has been found between the upper and lower orders of the series. The lines of junction of the different species, and the strata into which they are individually divided, are parallel to one another. From hence the conclusion seems striking; first, that their component parts must formerly have been in a state of fluidity; and, secondly, that the lower rocks in position must have been the first in formation. Their division, therefore, into two grand classes, distinguished no less by their relative position than by the obvious characters of their composition, is scientific. A crystalline texture, and the absence of extraneous fossils, mark the series which is lowest in position, and justify the name of primordial; while the earthy composition of the higher series, and the different bodies which they envel ope, from fragments of the preceding class to remains of organised bodies, authorise no less for these the appellation of secondary. Both these divisions of rocks are traversed by fissures which are filled with matters wholly foreign to their constitution. These veins are allowed by all to be of

Though the appearance of the country is barren and uncultivated, it naturally produces the reindeer's food; and as far as the eye can reach, even in the midst of summer, nothing is to be seen but fields covered with white moss, on which the animal totally subsists. The inhabitants, who, during summer, reside upon the mountains, in the winter drive their cattle into the plains, which, during the warm weather, they were unable to reside in from the immense swarms of gnats and flies. If these insects prove an annoyance to the natives, they are still much more so to the poor deer; and at the annual period of shedding their horns, settle in myriads upon their head. The glutton, a little animal about the size of a badger, frequently proves a most formidable foe, for, concealing itself amongst the thickest branches of the trees, it springs sud-posterior formation to the masses between which denly from thence upon the rein-deer's neck, and, fixing its teeth and claws just below the horns, never quits its hold till the animal dies.

they are interposed. Sometimes veins of different substances cut through each other, and in this case it is obvious that the one which is cut must have been of older formation than the one which traverses it. The disorder and various degrees of inclination of the planes of the strata point to some great revolution which must have broken their surfaces by the elevation of the upper or the depression of the lower ridge. Geologists all agree in this unavoidable inference, though they differ from each other as to the nature of the cause.

RELIEVO, or RELIEF. In Painting, is the degree of boldness with which the figures seem, at a due distance, to stand out from the ground of the painting. The relievo depends much upon the depth of the shadow, and the strength of the light; or on the height of the different colors, bordering upon one another; and particularly on the difference of the color of the figure from that of the In the science of geology, of late, observation ground; thus when the light is so disposed as to has certainly greatly superseded useless speculation, make the nearest part of the figure advance, and and the classification of the different formations is well diffused on the masses, yet insensibly di- of the earth's surface, the distinction and descripminishing, and terminating in a large spacious tion of different individuals of a series, the analyshadow, brought off insensibly, the relievo is said sis of minerals, and the investigation of their proto be bold, and the clare-obscure well understood.perties, have taken the place of useless cavils about remoter causes. It is by such gradual

RELIGION. Religion is different from theol-means that we may hope to penetrate the secrets ogy, inasmuch as the latter is speculative, and the of time; step by step to unravel the long series of former practical. Religion is a system of duties; past events; to harmonise philosophy with histheology, a system of opinions. Theology inquires tory. into the nature of the power or powers to whom There is not a more interesting or important all visible things are in subjection: religion is the department of this science than that which insentiment which springs from that inquiry. volves the consideration of organic remains; varying as much in regard to the state in which they are found as in their respective species. Sometimes the most delicate bodies are little changed

RELIGIOUS HOUSES. Convents, monasteries, nunneries, and the like, in the Romish Church,

by the processes which they have undergone; sometimes they are completely impregnated with stony matter; and often exhibit mere casts of the original substance. Uniting perhaps in himself more extensive knowledge of every department of nature than any other existing individual, it has been the arduous undertaking of M. Cuvier not only to class the different species, and compare them with their existing analogies, but carefully to ascertain the superpositions of the strata in which their remains occur, and their connexion with the different animals and plants which they enclose.

the same end. Hence none of these separate parts can change their forms without a corresponding change on the other parts of the same animal, and consequently each of these parts taken separately indicates all the other parts to which it has belonged. Thus if the viscera of an animal are so organized as only to be fitted for the digestion of recent flesh, it is also requisite that the jaws should be so constructed as to fit them for devouring their prey; the claws must be constructed for seizing and tearing it to pieces; the teeth for cutting and dividing its flesh; the entire system of the limbs, or organs of motion, for pursuing and overtaking He has particularly illustrated the fossil remains it; and the organs of sense for discovering it at of quadrupeds; and the highest degree of import-a distance. Hence any one who observes merely ance attaches to this class of fossils. They indi- the print of a cloven foot, may conclude that it has cate more clearly than others the nature of the been left by a ruminant animal; and regard the revolutions they have undergone. The important conclusion as equally certain with any other in fact of the repeated irruptions of the sea upon the physics or in morals. Consequently, the single land is by them placed beyond a doubt. The re-foot-mark clearly indicates to the observer the mains of shells and of other bodies of marine ori- forms of the teeth, of the jaws, of the vertebræ, gin might merely indicate that the sea had once of all the leg bones, thighs, shoulders, and of the existed where these collections are found. Thou- trunk of the body of the animal that left the sands of aquatic animals may have been left dry mark.' by a recess of the waves, while their races may It is from this connexion of all the different have been preserved in more peaceful parts of the parts of an animal, that the smallest piece of bone ocean. But a change in the bed of the sea, and a inay become the sure index of the class and spegeneral irruption of its waters, must have destroy-cies of the animal to which it has belonged; and ed all the quadrupeds within the reach of its in- it is from an indefatigable and ingenious applicafluence. Thus entire classes of animals, or at least tion of this rule that our author has been enabled many species, must have been utterly destroyed. to class the fossil remains of seventy-eight differWhether this actually has been the case we are ent quadrupeds, of which forty-nine are distinct more easily able to determine from the greater species, hitherto unknown to naturalists. The bones precision of our knowledge with respect to the are generally dispersed, seldom occurring in comquadrupeds, and the smaller limits of their num- plete skeletons, and still more rarely is the fleshy ber. It may be decided at once whether fossil part of the animal preserved. bones belong to any species which still exists, or But one of the most important and interesting of to one that is lost; but it is impossible to say the observations, for which we are indebted to the whether fossil testaceous animals, although un-precision of the French naturalist, is the distineknown to the zoologist, may not belong to generation of two different formations amongst seconyet undiscovered in the fathomless depths of the dary strata. These consist of alternate deposits from salt and fresh water; and are characterized by the nature of the shells which are found embedded in them. The country about Paris is founded upon chalk. This is covered with clay and a coarse limestone, containing marine petrifactions. Over this lies an alternating series of gypsum and clay, in which occur the remains of quadrupeds, birds, fish, and shells, all of land or fresh water species. Above this interesting stratum lie marl and sandstone, containing marine shells, which are covered with beds of limestone and flint, which again contain petrifactions of fresh water remains. The upper bed of all is of an alluvial nature, in which trunks of trees, bones of elephants, oxen, and rein-deer, intermingled with salt water productions, seem to suggest that both salt and fresh water have contributed to its accumulation. This alternate flux and reflux of the two fluids is a most extraordinary phenomenon, and promises to lead to an important conclusion respecting the general theory of the earth. We are inclined to think that something analogous to the process which produced these changes may be perceived in operations which are going on in our own time, and in gradual alterations which have been effected within the memory of one generation.

sea.

This indefatigable observer of nature, from a mature consideration of the subject, after a display of the most complete knowledge of the osteology of comparative anatomy, and after a learned comparison of the description of the rare animals of the ancients, and the fabulous products of their imaginations, draws the following instructive conclusion: None of the larger species of quadrupeds, whose remains are now found embedded in regular rocky strata, are at all similar to any of the known living species. This circumstance is by no means the mere effect of chance, or because the species to which these fossil bones have belonged are still concealed in the desert and uninhabited parts of the world, and have hitherto escaped the observation of travellers, but this astonishing phenomenon has proceeded from general causes, and the careful investigation of it affords one of the best means for discovering and investigating the nature of those causes.'

The method of observation adopted is susceptible, he contends, of the utmost accuracy. Every organized individual forms an entire system of its own, all the parts of which mutually correspond and concur to produce a certain definite purpose by reciprocal re-action, or by combining towards

The following extract from the accurate descrip