demonstration, or some operation proposed and its solution shown. If the proposition be deduced from several theoretical definitions compared together, it is called a theorem; if from a praxis, or series of operations, it is called a problem.

two kinds of proselytes; one called proselytes of righteousness, or proselytes of the covenant, who became complete Jews, by submitting to the rite of circumcision, and were in all respects united to the Jewish church and nation. The other called In Logic, part of an argument wherein some proselytes of the gate, who did not embrace the quality, either negative or positive, is attributed to Jewish religion, so as to be obliged to receive or a subject, as, 'God is just.' While the comparing observe the ceremonial law, and yet were suffered of our ideas is considered merely as the act of the to live among the Jews under certain restrictions; mind, assembling them together, and joining or as that they should not practice idolatry, nor wordisjoining them according to the result of its per- ship any other god beside the God of Israel; that ceptions, this operation is called judgment. But they should not blaspheme the God of Israel; that when these judgments are expressed in words, they should keep the Jewish sabbath, so far at they then bear the name of propositions. Hence least as to refrain from working on that day. Bea proposition is a sentence expressing some judg-sides forsaking idolatry, they were under an obliment of the mind, whereby two or more ideas are gation to observe the seven precepts, which, as the affirmed to agree or disagree and as our judg-Talmudists pretend, God gave to Adam, and afterments include at least two ideas, one of which is affirmed or denied of the other; so a proposition must have terms corresponding to these ideas. The idea of which we affirm or deny, and of course the term expressing that idea, is called the subject of the proposition; and the idea affirmed or denied, as also the term answering to it, is called its predicate; thus in the proposition, God is omnipotent, God is the subject, it being of him that we affirm omnipotence; and omnipotent is the predicate, because we affirm the idea expressed by that word to belong to God.

In Poetry, the first part of a poem, wherein the author proposes briefly, and in general, what he is to say in the body of his work. It should comprehend only the matter of the poem; that is, the action and the persons that act. Horace prescribes modesty and simplicity in the proposition, and would not have the poet promise too much, nor raise in the reader too great ideas of what he is going to relate.

PROPRIETY.

wards to Noah, who transmitted them to posterity. The first of these precepts forbids idolatry, and the worship of the stars in particular; the second recommends the fear of God; the third forbids murder; the fourth adultery; the fifth theft; the sixth enjoins respect and veneration for magistrates; and the seventh condemns eating of flesh with the blood.

Dr. Lardner, with whom Dr. Doddridge and others also agree, is of opinion that there was but one sort of proselytes among the Jews. They were circumcised, and thus they became Jews by religion, and were permitted to eat the passover, and to partake of all religious privileges, as the Jews by descent did. They were called 'strangers, or proselytes within the gates, and sojourners,' as they were allowed to dwell or sojourn among the people of Israel. And they were so called, because, according to the law of Moses, they could not possess land. This is the sense of the word in all the texts of the New Testament where it is used. Dr. Lardner thinks that the noIn Grammar, is where the tion of two kinds of Jewish proselytes cannot be direct and immediate signification of a word agrees found in any Christian writer before the fourteenth to the thing it is applied to. In which sense pro- century or later. This learned writer pays no repriety is used in opposition to a figurative or re-gard to what the later Jewish rabbins say of the mote signification. Propriety of language denotes method of initiating proselytes by circumcision, the selection of such words as the best usage has baptism, and sacrifice. appropriated to those ideas, which we intend to express by them; in opposition to low expressions, and to words and phrases which would be less significant of the ideas that we mean to convey. To preserve propriety in our words and phrases, we must avoid low expressions: supply words that are wanting; take care not to use the same word in different senses; avoid the injudicious use of technical phrases, equivocal or ambiguous words, unintelligible expressions, and all such words and phrases as are not adapted to our meaning.

PROROGATION. In England, the interruption or putting off a session of parliament to a certain time appointed by the king.

PROSELYTE. In Theology, is used to denote any new convert. The term was frequent in the primitive church; and the Jews likewise had their proselytes, who from Gentiles became Jews, following the precepts of the Mosaic law. It is generally believed that among the Hebrews there were

PROSEUCHE. In Antiquity, properly signifies prayer; but it is taken for the places of prayer by the Jews, and was pretty near the same as their synagogues. But the synagogues were originally in the cities, and were covered places: whereas, for the most part, the proseuches were out of the cities, and on the banks of rivers; having no covering, except perhaps the shade of some trees or covered galleries.

PROSODY. That part of grammar, which teaches the quantities and accents of syllables, and the art of making verses.

PROSOPOPŒIA, or PERSONIFICATION. In Rhetoric, a figure, by which we make persons that are absent, or dead; or even things which are inanimate, as cities, &c. to speak.

The poets, in their fictions, make frequent use of the prosopopœia; as also do the orators, in their painting of violent passions, which seem to transport, and make them forget themselves.

This figure is of very extensive use to the orator; disciples, arrayed in armor and blood, riding in when he thinks his own character not of sufficient triumph over the spoils of thousands who fell by weight to affect his audience in the manner he de- his victorious sword. Show her the cities which sires, he substitutes a person of greater authority he set in flames, the countries which he ravaged than himself to engage their attention. When he and destroyed, and the miserable distress of all the has severe things to say, and which may give of- inhabitants of the earth. When she has viewed fence, as coming from himself, he avoids this by him in this scene, carry her into his retirement; putting them in the mouth of some other person, show her the prophet's chamber; his concubines from whom they will be better taken; or makes and his wives; and let her hear him allege revelainanimate nature bring a charge, or express a re- tion, and a divine commission to justify his adulsentment, to render it the more affecting. And by tery and lust. When she is tired with this prosthe same method he chooses sometimes to secure pect, then show her the blessed Jesus, humble and himself from a suspicion of flattery, in carrying a meek, doing good to all the sons of men. Let her compliment too high. In the management of this see him in his most retired privacies; let her folfigure, care should be taken, that what is said be low him to the mount, and hear his devotions and always consistent with the character introduced, supplications to God. Carry her to his table, to in which both the force and beauty of it consists. view his poor fare; and hear his heavenly disThis figure is nearly allied to the metaphor, and course. Let her attend him to the tribunal, and still more to the metonymy: it is to the latter what consider the patience with which he endured the the allegory is to the metaphor. Thus when we scoffs and reproaches of his enemies. Lead her say, 'youth and beauty shall be laid in the dust,' to his cross; let her view him in the agony of for persons possessing youth and beauty, it is hard death, and hear his last prayer for his persecutors: to determine whether it be a metonymy or a pro-Father, forgive them, for they know not what sopopæia. Lyric poetry, in which the imagination they do!' seems to have the fullest indulgence, and which abounds with strong figures, is most favorable to personification. Of this figure, according to Dr. Lowth, there are two kinds: one, when action and character are attributed to fictitious, irrational, or even inanimate objects; the other, when a probable but fictitious speech is assigned to a real character. The former evidently partakes of the nature of the metaphor, and is by far the boldest and most daring of that class of figures. Dr. Blair reckons three different degrees of this figure; the first, when some of the properties or qualities of living creatures are ascribed to inanimate objects; the second, when those inanimate objects are introduced as acting like such as have life; and the third when they are represented, either as speaking to us, or as listening to what we say to them. The first, and lowest degree of this figure is exemplified, most commonly, by adding an epithet to the object, as a raging storm,'' a deceitful disease,' 'a cruel disaster,' &c. and it raises the style so little The third and highest degree of personification that it hardly deserves the name of personification, is the boldest of all rhetorical figures; it is the and might be classed with simple metaphors. On expression of strong feeling and passion; and some occasions, however, it adds beauty and ought never to be attempted, unless the mind is sprightliness to an expression. In the second de- considerably heated and agitated. Of this figure gree of this figure the personification becomes Milton has given a very fine example, in that movmore sensible. It is observed by Dr. Blair, that ing and tender address, which Eve makes to Parthe genius of our language affords us an advantage adise, just before she is compelled to leave it. in the use of this figure. As with us, no substantive nouns have gender, or are masculine and fe-Oh! unexpected stroke, worse than of death! minine, except the proper names of male and fe- Must I thus leave thee, Paradise! thus leave male creatures; by giving a gender to any inanimate object, or abstract idea, that is, by substituting the personal pronouns, he or she, in place of the pronoun it, we raise the style, and begin to personify.

When natural religion has thus viewed both, ask her, which is the prophet of God? But her answer we have already had, when she saw part of this scene through the eyes of the centurion, who attended at the cross. By him she spake, and said, 'Truly, this man was the son of God.' This passage, says Dr. Blair, is more than elegant, it is truly sublime. Personifications of this kind are the life and soul of poetry. They occur frequently in Homer, Shakspeare, and Milton, as well as in other poets. The following personification by Milton, on occasion of Eve's eating the forbidden fruit, is peculiarly striking:

So saying, her rash hand, in evil hour
Forth reaching to the fruit, she pluck'd, she eat;
Earth feit the wound; and Nature, from her seat
Sighing, through all her works, gave signs of woe,
That all was lost.'

Thee, native soil, these happy walks, and shades, Fit haunt of gods! where I had hope to spend Quiet, though sad, the respite of that day, Which must be mortal to us both. O flowers! That never will in other climate grow, In solemn discourse this may be done to good My early visitation, and my last, purpose, when speaking of religion or virtue, or At ev'n, which I bred up with tender hand, our country, or any such object of dignity. An From your first op'ning buds, and gave you names! instance of this kind, in which natural religion is Who now shall rear you to the sun, or rank beautifully personified, occurs in a sermon of bish-Your tribes, and water from th' ambrosial fount? op Sherlock's, in which he is comparing our Saviour with Mahomet. 'Go,' says he, 'to your natural religion; lay before her Mahomet, and his

This is altogether, says Blair, the language of nature, and of female passion. This excellent

writer proposes two great rules for the management of this sort of personification. The first is, never to attempt it, unless when prompted by strong passion, and never to continue it, when the passion begins to flag. The second is, never to personify any object in this way, but such as has some dignity in itself, and can make a proper figure in this elevation to which we raise it.

In prose compositions, this figure requires to be used with still greater moderation and delicacy; for here the imagination is not allowed the same liberty as in poetry, nor can the same assistances be obtained for raising passion to its proper height by the force of numbers, and the glow of style. Nevertheless, addresses to animate objects are not excluded from prose; but they have their place only in the higher species of oratory. This figure has uncommon force and expression, as it is used by Hebrew writers. What can be conceived more apt, more beautiful, or more sublime, than that personification of wisdom, which is so frequently introduced by Solomon? How admirable is that celebrated personification of the divine attributes by the Pslamist? Such also are that in Habakkuk, of the pestilence marching before Jehovah, when he comes to vengeance; that in Job, in which destruction and death affirm of wisdom, that her fame only had come to their ears; and that tremendous image, in Isaiah, of Hades, extending her throat, and opening her insatiable and immeasurable jaws.

PROSCRIPTION. A most horrible method of assassination, which was practised in the Roman republic, by the leaders of the predominant factions. The manner of proscribing was, to write down the names of those who were doomed to die, and expose them on tables fixed up in the public places of the city, with the promise of a certain reward for the head of each person so proscribed. The first author and inventor of the proscription, was Sylla, a Roman general, who entering the city with an army, about eighty years before the Christian era, proscribed the most distinguished adherents to the opposite party, not only at Rome, but through all the towns of Italy; and also proscribed many rich men, merely for the sake of confiscating their estates. Another proscription was afterwards made by the Triumvirs, Octavius, Mark Anthony, and Lepidus; three generals, of armies, who usurped the government of the republic, in joint partnership among themselves. The last proscrip-* tion comprehended three hundred senators, and more than two thousand knights. It was forbidden, under pain of death, to conceal or assist any proscribed person; a reward was offered to whoever would kill them, and even the freedom of the city to slaves who assassinated their masters. This proscription included Cicero, one of the greatest men and best patriots that ever lived. Cicero fled, on receiving notice that he was proscribed. He was pursued and murdered by Popilius Laenas, a tribune or colonel of the army, whom Cicero had formerly defended and preserved in a capital cause. Cicero's head, and both his hands were cut off, and carried to Rome, and the head was ordered to be fixed, between the two hands, upon the rostra; where his unrivalled powers of eloquence had often been employed in defence of the lives, the fortunes, and the liberties of the Roman people. The murderer of this great and excellent man received about eight thousand pounds sterling, as the reward of his villany. The Roman proscription was copied by Marat, Robespierre, and some other bloody jacobins of France; who seemed ambitious to exceed all preceding usurpers and raurderers, in deeds of cruelty.

PROTESTANT. A name first given in Germany to those who adhered to the doctrine of Luther; because, in 1529, they 'protested' against a decree of the emperor Charles V. and the diet of Spires; and declared, that they appealed to a general council.

There is another beautiful species of personification, which originates from a well known Hebrew idiom; or that form of expression by which the subject, attribute, accident, or effect of any thing is denominated the Son. Isaiah, pronounced by Dr. Lowth to be the sublimest of all poets, furnishes, in one short poem, examples of almost every form of the prosopopoeia, and indeed of all that constitutes the sublime in composition. After a critique upon this sublime ode of Isaiah, our learned writer concludes in the following manner: 'How forcible is this imagery, how diversified, how sublime! how elevated the diction, the figures, the sentiments! The Jewish nation, the cedars of Lebanon, the ghosts of departed kings, the Babylonish monarch, the travellers who find his corpse, and last of all Jehovah himself, are the characters which support this beautiful lyric drama. One continued action is kept up, or rather a series of interesting actions are connected together in an incomparable whole: this, indeed, is the principal and distinguished excellence of the sublimer ode, and is displayed in its utmost perfection In a former diet, held at Spires in 1526, it was in this poem of Isaiah, which may be considered unanimously agreed to present a solemn address as one of the most ancient, and certainly the most to the emperor beseeching him to assemble, withfinished specimen of that species of composition, out delay, a free and a general council; and it was which has been transmitted to us. The personifi- also agreed, that in the mean time, the princes and cations here are frequent, yet not confused; bold, states of the empire should, in their respective yet not improbable: a free, elevated, and truly dominions, be at liberty to manage ecclesiastical divine spirit pervades the whole; nor is there any matters in the manner they should think the most thing wanting in this ode to defeat its claim to the expedient, yet so as to be able to give to God and character of perfect beauty and sublimity. If, in- to the emperor an account of their administration, deed, I may be indulged in the free declaration of when it should be demanded of them. This demy own sentiments on this occasion, I do not know cree was considered by the adversaries of the a single instance in the whole compass of Greek Reformation as almost equivalent to a toleration and Roman poetry, which, in every excellence of of Luther's opinions; and therefore, as soon as the composition, can be said to equal, or even to ap- emperor had concluded a treaty of peace with proach it.' Clement VII., who now sat in the papal chair, he

assembled the new diet at Spires in 1529; where | for its triteness, although the very triteness in this, the power which had been granted by the former as in most other cases, (such as often quoted verses,) diet to every prince, of managing ecclesiastical proves merit; and even this homely proverb unmatters as they thought proper, until the meeting doubtedly has often led to care and thoughtfulness. of a general council, was revoked by a majority of Proverbs often save long explanations by presentvotes; and every change was declared unlawful, ing a striking image; and many a lecture has that should be introduced into the doctrine, disci- probably been superseded by the French adage, pline, or worship of the established religion, before One spoonful of honey attracts more flies than a the determination of the approaching council was hundred barrels of vinegar.' So they may be often known. Against this decree, the elector of Saxo- used with effect to point the conclusion of a disny, the marquis of Brandenburgh, the landgrave course. A period on the failure of men who strive of Hesse, the dukes of Lunenburg, the prince of beyond their capacity, might be well closed, by the Anhalt, together with the deputies of fourteen im- Arabian saying which Burckhardt mentions, ‘If perial or free cities, entered a solemn protest. God purposes the destruction of an ant, he gives her wings;' and the vanity of human resolutions could hardly be set in a stronger light than by the Portuguese proverb, 'Hell is paved with good intentions'-a proverb which, until it has become familiar, is awfully impressive. It requires skill to apply proverbs elegantly and judiciously in com mon life.

The name has been since also given to those who adhere to the sentiments of Calvin; and is now become a common denomination applied indiscriminately to all the sects, of whatever denomination, which have revolted from the Roman see.

PROTRACTOR. Protractor is the name of an instrument used for protracting or laying down on paper the angles of a field, or other figure. The protractor is a small semicircle of brass, or other solid matter, the limb or circumference of which is nicely divided into one hundred and eighty degrees: it serves not only to draw angles on paper, or any plane, but also to examine the extent of those already laid down. For this last purpose, let the small point in the centre of the protractor, be placed above the angular point, and let the side coincide with one of the sides that contain the angle proposed; then the number of degrees cut off by the other side, computing on the protractor, will show the quantity of the angle

that was to be measured.

Protractors are now more usually made in the form of a parallelogram, and properly graduated at the upper edge.

PROVERBS. Proverbs are the flower of popular wit and the treasures of popular wisdom; they give the result of experience in a form made impressive by rhyme, alliteration, parallelism (q. v.) a pointed turn, or a comparison drawn from the most ordinary scenes and occurrences of life, which, by the force of association, makes their effect strong and permanent. The habit of men, at the present day, to communicate so much with each other by writing, which, exciting the feelings less than conversation, leads to a less animated mode of expression, and the disposition to avoid what is common, springing from the pride of intellectual cultivation incident to an advanced stage of society, and various causes connected with the progress of civilisation, make proverbs every day more unfashionable with the most civilized European nations, particularly the English, with whom the use of a proverb (except it be one of a foreign nation) is considered almost vulgar; and the same contempt for these jewels of the multitude has spread to us.

Another reason for proverbs going out of fashion may be, that the better a proverb is, the more trite it becomes; and what is trite is vulgar, and what is vulgar is inelegant. Thus a public speaker could not use the proverb, Twixt cup and lip is many a slip,' at least, not without some apology

PRUNING. Lopping off superfluous branches of trees, in order to make them bear fruit the better; an important part of gardening, which can be learned only by practice and experience.

PRUSSIAN BLUE. A pigment of a dark blue color, now procured from bullock's blood, carbonate of potash, vitriol of iron, alum, and muriatic acid.

PRYTANES. In Grecian Antiquity, were the presidents of the senate, whose authority consisted chiefly in assembling the senate; which, for the most part, was done once every day. The senate consisted of 500, fifty senators being elected out of each tribe: after which, lots were cast, to determine in what order the senators of each tribe should preside; which they did by turns, and during their presidentship were called prytanes. However, all the fifty prytanes of the tribes did not govern at once, but one at a time, viz. for seven days; and after thirty-five days, another tribe came into play, and presided for other five weeks, and so of the rest.

PSALMODY. The act or practice of singing holy songs was always esteemed a considerable part of devotion. The plain song was early used, being a gentle inflexion of the voice, not much different from reading, like the chant in cathedrals; at other times more artificial compositions, like our anthems. Sometimes a single person sung alone; sometimes the whole assembly joined together, which was the most ancient and general practice. At other times, as in those of king David, the psalms were sung alternately, the congregation dividing themselves into parts, and singing verses in turns. There was a fourth way of singing, pretty common in the fourth century, which was, when a single person began the verse, and the people joined with him in the close; this was often used for variety in the same service with alternate psalmody. The use of musical instruments, in the singing of psalms, seems to be as ancient as psalmody itself; the first psalm we read of being sung to the timbrel, viz. that of Moses and Miriam, after

the deliverance of the Israelites from Egypt: and afterwards musical instruments were in constant use in the temple of Jerusalem.

PSALTERY. A musical instrument much in use among the ancient Hebrews, who called it nebel. We know little or nothing of the precise form of the ancient psaltery. That now in use is a flat instrument, in form of a trapezium or triangle truncated at the top: it is strung with thirteen wire chords, set to unison or octave, and mounted on two bridges, on the two sides: it is struck with a pleetrum, or little wire rod, and sometimes with a crooked stick. Its chest or body resembles that of a spinet.

The moth produced by this caterpillar flies but little, yet is very nimble in avoiding danger by running, which it does with great swiftness.

There are species of these pseudo-tinea, or wax-eating caterpillars, which infest the subterranean hives of wasps, and other creatures which make wax; the manner of living, feeding, and defending themselves from their enemies, is the same in all the species.

The accurate author of these observations, describes also a kind of pseudo-tinea, which feed on wool, and another that eats leather; both making themselves houses also of the materials they feed on. All these creatures, whatever be their food or habitation, finally become phalenæ, or moths and may be distinguished, even in this PSEUDO-TINEA. The name of a very re-state, from the other species, by having granulated markable species of insect described by M. Reau- horns of a remarkable structure, and all of them a mur, approaching to the nature of the tinea, or proboscis, or trunk, more or less incurvated. cloth-moth, while in the worm state; but not making themselves coats of the substance of leaves, cloth, &c., though they form a sort of cases for their defence against a very terrible enemy.

These creatures are truly of the caterpillar kind, and have in the manner of many of these insects, sixteen legs. They feed on wax, and for food enter the bee hives; where they boldly engage the bees, and are not to be prevented by them from feeding, though at the expense of their habitations and the cells of their reservoirs of honey; so that it is no uncommon thing for a swarm of bees to be forced to change their place of habitation, and make new combs elsewhere; leaving the old ones to their contemptible victor, whom they know not how to drive out or dispossess.

Virgil and Aristotle, and all the authors who have written on bees, have complained of this destructive animal. It never eats the honey, but feeds only on the wax; attacking principally those waxy cells where the female bee deposits her eggs for the future progeny.

PTOLEMAIC SYSTEM. The system of astronomy laid down by Ptolemy, the celebrated astronomer and mathematician of Pelusium in Egypt. This system is founded on the hypothesis that the earth is immovably fixed in the centre, not of the world only, but also of the universe, round which the sun, moon, planets, and stars all move from east to west once in twenty-four hours.

PUBLICAN, PUBLICANUS. Among the Romans, a person who farmed the imposts, taxes, and public revenues. This function was usually exercised by the Roman knights, who constituted an order of great consideration at Rome, and a kind of middle rank between the senators and the people. Their institution was as early as Romulus. They did not attain the great offices, nor enter the senate, as long as they continued in the order of knights; and thus they were the more capable of employing themselves in collecting the revenues of the Roman people.

The bees, who are a match for most other crea- The common publicans, the collectors or receivtures, by means of their stings, would easily destroyers, are spoken of with great contempt, by heaththose weak creatures, were it not for the impervi-ens as well as Jews; and particularly by Theocrious armor they are covered with. They form tus, who said, that ainong the beasts of the wilderthemselves a coat of armor of a double matter; ness, bears and lions are the most cruel; among the first, which immediately covers the body, is a the beasts of the city, the publican and parasite. kind of silk of their own spinning; and the outer covering over this is of the bee's wax; this is laid considerably thick, and the creature just thrusting out its head to feed, goes on devouring the cells undisturbed, while a whole army of the inhabitants are in vain buzzing about him, and attempting to pierce him with their stings.

When the time of the change of this creature approaches, it contracts its body within its double covering, and there changes into the nymph state; whence, after a proper time, it comes forth in form of a moth, with granulated horns and crooked proboscis.

The bees have cunning enough to know their destructive enemy in this new form, and as this is a weak and defenceless state, they attack and destroy all the moths of this species they can meet with. They seldom are so fortunate, however, as to kill the whole race as soon as produced; and if only one escapes, it is able to lay a foundation of revenge for the death of its brethren.

The reason of this general hatred was, without doubt, their rapine and extortion: for having a share in the farm of the tribute, at a certain rate, they were apt to oppress the people with illegal exactions, to raise as large a fortune as they could for themselves. Besides, publicans were particularly odious to the Jews, who looked upon them to be the instruments of their subjection to the Roman emperors; to which they generally held it sinful for them to submit. So that paying tribute to the Roman emperor they looked upon to be a virtual acknowledgment of his sovereignty. This was, therefore, a peculiar grievance, and created an aversion to the collectors, as the instruments of illegal oppression, apart from all consideration of their rapacious practices. Moreover, the Jews, who accepted the office of publicans, were on that account hated of their own nation equally with heathens: and according to the rabbies it was a maxim; a religious man, who becomes a publican, is to be driven out of the society of religion.