ons other pieces extending over a greater portion | the weapons of their enemies. The natives of of the body; it was connected with a back, and the northwest coast of America, in Nootka Sound, then were added guards for the arms, legs, and contrive a thick leather frock, or doublet, reachthighs. The helmet covering only the upper parting from the neck to the heels, made of the skin of the head, was closed before, brought down to- of the elk tanned, and sometimes threefold. It is wards the shoulders, and united to the rest, by cut into a fringe at the sides and neck, and is which means a complete external protection was adorned on the other parts with tassels of leathobtained. But these improvements were accom- er, and painted with various devices. We are plished, as we know, in a long series of years; and assured, that this war dress may be considered there cannot be a more unequivocal demonstration complete defensive armour; for it will resist arof the progress of civilisation and the arts in Eu- rows, and even spears; because, from hanging rope, than the various changes or alterations which loose, it yields to the force, and checks the proarmour underwent for many centuries. gress of both. This war dress is accompanied with a wooden mask, representing the head of some animal. It may certainly be the subject of astonishment, that there are savage nations which are often exposed to sanguinary conflicts, and yet go to war in a state of absolute nakedness. They have neither clothes, skins of beasts, mattings, nor shields to protect them, while both they and their enemies fight with dangerous pointed weapons. ARMOURER. A maker of armour or arms; a manufacturer of instruments of war. The armourer of a ship has the charge of the arms, to see that they are in a condition fit for service. Shields, also called bucklers and targets, consist of different substances, such as leather, wood, or metal; and their form is various, according to the different nations which use them. The shields of the natives of New South Wales, a barbarous people, unacquainted with any other kind of defensive armour, are of a long elliptical figure, made either of the bark of a tree, or of solid wood hardened by fire. The inhabitants of Louisiada, near the coast of Guinea, carry a shield of very hard wood, above half an inch thick: it is an oblong figure, slightly convex, nearly three feet in length, and a foot and a quarter broad. Those of the Malays in Celeves, are oval, and formed of wood. We are told that the shield of Ajax consisted of seven bulls hides. That of the Tartars is still made of leather. Both ARMS. Man has not, like many animals, receivin France, and in England and Scotland, rounded from nature any member intended particularly leather shields were used, and even so late as as a weapon. He is obliged to use artificial means the year 1715 by the Scottish chieftains. An old statute, 1471, enjoins the yeomen to have a target of leather (to resist the shot of England.) This shield, called the roundel from its figure, was often stuck full of nails in concentric circles. It was not above a foot or thirteen inches in diameter, generally convex, though sometimes concave; and there are instances of a dagger being inserted in the boss or umbo. Here also were the arms of the bearer, or some emblem-cast. atic device exhibited. Many of these shields had wood, wicker-work, or even metal plates, below the leather. The Grecian shield was either round or angular. That of Agamemnon, at the Trojan war, was surrounded with ten circles of brass, inclosing twenty bosses of tin, and in the centre was a Gorgon's head. The shield of Achilles is described as superb, and abounding with sculptures. The Roman shield was of a square figure, and convex: and by the union of many of these in service was formed the testudo; so called from presenting the general appearance of the shell of a tortoise. The size of the shield has been extremely various, for some were used almost sufficient to cover the whole body: and there was one particular kind, used several centuries ago, called Pavois or Tallevas, of extraordinary dimensions, which was not wore by the combatant himself, but borne by an attendant. This, in sieges, was interposed between archers and the besieged, to guard them from the weap-lista, &c. These would produce effect at the disons of the enemy. War dresses, of rude construction, are used by the uncultivated savages of the present day. The New Zealanders have one covering the body, which consists merely of a matting, thick and closely woven, and strong enough to withstand to increase his strength, when he attacks, as well The tance of 1000 feet. But the discovery of gunpowder changed the character of arms. Objects 6000 paces distant could now be reached, and obstacles overthrown with ease, which formerly cost the labor of years. By the invention of steam-guns, still more may be accomplished in future. ARMY. A body of soldiers consisting of horse and foot, under the command of a general and subordinate officers, and completely equipped and disciplined for service. An army is generally divided into a certain number of corps, each consisting of brigades, regiments, battalions, and squadrons; when in the field, it is formed into lines; the first line is called the vanguard, the second the main body, the third the rearguard, or body of reserve. The middle of each line is occupied by the foot, the cavalry forms the right and left wing of each line, and sometimes squadrons of horse are placed in the intervals between the battalions. When the army is drawn up in order of battle, the horse are placed at the distance of five feet from each other, and the foot at three. In each line the battalions are distant from each other about 180 feet, which is nearly equal to their length in front; and the same holds with regard to the squadrons, which are about 300 feet distant, the extent of their own front. The most numerous army of which we have any account in the annals of history, was that of Xerxes. According to the statement of Rollin, which is founded on the statements of Herodotus, Isocrates, and Plutarch, this army consisted of 1,700,000 foot, 80,000 horse, and 20,000 men for conducting the carriages and camels. On passing the Hellespont, an addition was made to it from other nations, of 300,000, which made his land forces amount to 2,100,000. His fleet consisted of 1207 vessels, each carrying 230 men; in all 277,610 men, which was augmented by the European nations,, with 1200 vessels, carrying 240,000 men. Besides this fleet, the small galleys, and transport ships, amounted to 3000, containing about 240,000 men. Including servants, cunuchs, women, sutlers, and others, who usually follow an army, it is reckoned, that the whole number of souls that followed Xerxes into Greece, amounted to 5,283,220; which is more than the whole of the male population of Great Britain and Ireland, above twenty years of age, and nearly triple the whole population of Scotland. After remaining some time in Greece, nearly the whole of this immense army, along with the fleet, was routed and destroyed. Mardonius, one of his ablest commanders, with an army of 300,000, was finally defeated and slain at the battle of Platea, and only three thousand of this vast army, with difficulty, escaped destruction. The following is a summary statement of the number of human beings that were slain in several of the battles recorded in history.-In the year 101 before Christ, in an engagement between Marius, the Roman Consul, and the Ambrones and the Teutones, in Transalpine Gaul, there were slain of these barbarians, besides what fell in the Roman army, 200,000, some historians say, 290,000. And it is related, that the inhabitants of the neighbouring country made fences for vineyards of their bones. In the following year, the Romans, under the command of the same general, slaughtered 140,000 of the Cimbri, and took 60,000 prisoners. In the year 105, B. C. the Romans, in a single engagement with the Cimbri and the Teutones, lost upwards of 80, 000 men. In the battle of Cannæ, the Romans were surrounded by the forces of Hannibal, and cut to pieces. After an engagement of only three hours, the carnage became so dreadful, that even the Carthagenian general cried out, to spare the conquered. | Above 40,000 Romans were left dead on the field, and six thousand of the Carthagenian army. What a dreadful display of the rage and fury of diabolical passions must have been exhibited on this occasion! and what a horrible scene must have been presented on the field of battle, when we consider, that, in the mode of ancient warfare, the slain were literally mangled, and cut to pieces!-In the battle of Issus, between Alexander and Darius, were slain 110,000; in the battle of Arbela, two years afterwards, between the same two despots, 300,000; in the battle between Pyrrhus and the Romans, 25,000; in the battle between Scipio and Asdrubal, 40,000; in the battle between Suetonius and Boadicea, 80,000. In the siege of Jerusalem by Vespasian, according to the account of Josephus, there were destroyed, in the most terrible manner, 1,100,000; and there were slaughtered in Jerusalem, in 170, B. C. by Antiochus, 40,000. At Cyrene, there were slain of Romans and Greeks, by the Jews, 220,000; in Egypt and Cyprus, in the reign of Trojan, 240,000; and in the reign of Adrian, 580,000 Jews. After Julius Cæsar had carried his arms into the territories of the Usipetes in Germany, he defeated them with such slaughter, that 400,000 are said to have perished in one battle. At the defeat of Attila, King of the Huns, at Chalons, there perished about 300,000. In the year 631, there were slain by the Saracens in Syria, 60,000; in the invasion of Milan by the Goths, no less than 300,000; and in A. D. 734, by the Saracens in Spain, 370,000. In the battle of Fontenay, were slaughtered 100,000; in the battle of Yermouk, 150,000; and in the battle between Charles Martel and the Mahometans, 350,000. In the battle of Muret, in A. D. 1213, between the Catholics and the Albigenses, were slain 32,000; in the battle of Cressy, in 1346, 50,000: in the battle of Halidon-hill, in 1333, 20,000; in the battle of Agincourt, in 1415, 20,000; in the battle of Towton, in 1461, 37,000; in the battle of Lepanto, in 1571, 25,000; at the siege of Vienna, in 1683, 70,000; and in a battle in Persia, in 1734, 60,000, AROMATIC VINEGAR. Consists of a solu tion of camphor and various essential oils in the purest vinegar or acetic acid. It has a most pun gent and agreeable odour, and is used for pains in the head, and for purifying rooms in contagious diseases. ARRANGEMENT, A term which denotes a distribution of the various component parts of any whole, in a certain order, or proportion; and refers either to substance, time, or place. In the first instance, we may say, that the diversity observable in various colors, is owing to a peculiar arrangement of those parts which reflect the light; in the second, that regularity and order in human transactions, are the result of a methodical distribution or arrangement of time; and to explain the last, it may be said, that the different genera and species of plants and flowers, are, by botanists, arranged under their respective classes, and in their proper places. A happy arrangement of ideas, words, and sentences, forms one of the principal beauties of a speech, or dissertation. The reverse implies confusion, which is frequently glossed over by a torrent of ambiguous and flowery expressions; so that it re quires no small degree of critical acumen, to distinguish the philosophical speaker from the verbose orator ARROTINO. In sculpture, a celebrated antique statue in the gallery of the great duke of Florence, representing an old man naked, resting on one knee, and whetting a knife upon a stone, with his head in an attitude of listening. According to Millin, there is in its expression a ferocious smile, and he supposes it the image of a slave, who, while sharpening his knife, overhears some plan of a conspiracy; perhaps that of Vindex, who discovered the conspiracy of the sons of Brutus; or of Milichus, who informed Nero of the projects of his master Seevinus and the Pisos against him. either a saline or metallic state. Hence it has by many been considered as a mineralizing substance, which only tends to combine metals, and to give them a more perfect form. Nay, there are others, who have doubted whether it be a simple body: and an ingenious lecturer on chemistry and pharmacy in Edinburgh, flatters himself with the hope of being able, at some future period, to demonstrate by experiment, "that arsenic is the true basis of silver." This semi-metallic concrete is very usefully employed in various branches of the arts and manufactures: it is frequently added as an ingredient, to facilitate the fusion of glass, and to produce a certain degree of opacity. Painters use two arsenical preparations, namely, the orpiment and realgar. A very beautiful green pigment may be precipitated from blue vitriol, by a watery solution of white arsenic and vegetable alkali: this, when prepared either with water or oil, affords a permanent color. It is highly probable, that, if arsenic were added to the paint used for wood, it might form an ingredient which would not be liable to be preyed upon by worms. But the practice of painting the toys of children with arsenical pigments, deserves severe censure; as they are accustomed to put every thing into their mouths. In dyeing, it is likewise of great service. Combined with sulphur, it has the property of readily dissolving indigo; for which purpose it is used in the printing of calico, and other cloth. On exposure to the air, however, the arsenic is precipitated from this solution, and may be farther employed in pencil colors. Some dyers are said to understand the art of imparting beautiful shades of colors to furs, by arsenical solutions. ARROWROOT. Is a kind of starch manufactured from the roots of a plant, the maranta arundinacea, which is cultivated in gardens both in the East and West Indies. It is about two feet in height; has broad, pointed, and somewhat hairy leaves; bears small white flowers in clusters, and globular fruit of the size of currants. The starch or powder of the arrowroot is obtained by the following process:-The roots are dug when a year old, and well washed, and beaten in deep wooden mortars till they are reduced to a milky pulp. This is well washed again in clear water, and the fibrous parts, which are found among it, are carefully separated, and thrown away. It is next passed through a sieve or coarse cloth, and suffered to stand for some time, till the starch has settled to the bottom. The water is then drawn off, and the white residue is again washed; after which the water is entirely drained off, and the pulp when dried in the sun, is found to be an extremely pure starch, which when reduced to powder, is the arrowroot of commerce. There is no vegetable, if we except, perhaps, the salep or orchis root, which yields so large a proportion of nutritious mucilage as this, As an article of diet for children and invalids, it is invaluable, more especially in all forms of bowel complaints. Owing to the great demand for it, it has been much adulterated, and care is required in the selection of it. The purest is the Jamaica or Bermuda arrowroot. A very cheap and tolerable substitute for this article may be found in the starch obtained from the potatoe which cannot be too highly re-rough state of the tongue and throat; hiccough; commended. Arsenic is one of the most sudden and violent poisons we are acquainted with. Its fumes are so deleterious to the lungs, that the artist ought to be on his guard, to prevent their inhalation by the mouth; for if they be mixed and swallowed with the saliva, effects will take place similar to those which follow its introduction into the stomach in a saline or dissolved state; namely, a sensation of a piercing, gnawing, and burning kind, accompanied with an acute pain in the stomach and intestines, which last are violently contorted; convulsive vomiting; insatiable thirst, from the parched and palpitation of the heart, and a deadly oppression of the whole breast, succeed next. The matters ejected by the mouth, as well as the stools, exhibit a black, fetid, and putrid appearance. At length, with the mortification of the bowels, the pain subsides, and the fatal catastrophe terminates the suf ARSENAL. In military affairs, in a large and well fortified town, is a spacious building, in which are deposited all kinds of arms, and other warlike implements, such as cannon, mortars, howitzers, small arms, and every other warlike kind of en-ferings of the patient, gines and instruments of death. ARSON. In law; the act of wilfully setting fire ARSENIC. A heavy, opaque, crystalline sub-to a house, or other property, belonging to others. stance, which, on fracture, resembles sal ammoniac This crime, by the law of England, is punishable in a concrete state. Most of the metallic ores con- by death. If a man sets fire to his own house, the tain it in greater or less proportion, especially those act is punishable by fine, imprisonment, or setting of copper, tin, bismuth, and the fossil called cobalt, in the pillory. In the U. States of America, there from which last it is extracted in Saxony, by a kind is some difference in the degree of punishment of sublimation. Its true nature is so little known, provided by the laws of the different states. In that chemists have hesitated whether it ought to be Massachusetts, setting fire to a dwelling house, in ranked among the salts, or semi-metals: because the night time, is punishable with death; in the it may, by various processes, be made to assume day time, with hard labor for life. For burning buildings not dwelling-houses, the punishment, though severe, is milder. In New Hampshire, the law is very similar. In New York, setting fire to an inhabited dwelling-house is punishable with death; to an uninhabited building, with imprisonment. In Kentucky, arson is punishable with imprisonment in the penitentiary. In all the states, it is treated, of course, as an offence of the blackest character. parts of the blood, mixed with air. Arteries are membranous pulsating canals, which gradually become less as they proceed from the heart. They are composed of three membranes, a common or external, a muscular, and an internal one, which is very smooth. They originate from the heart; the pulmonary artery from the right ventricle, and the aorta from the left. The other arteries are all branches of the aorta. Their termination is either in the veins, or in capillary exhaling vessels, or they anastomose with one another. It is by their means that the blood is carried from the heart to every part of the body, for nutrition, preservation of life, generation of heat, and the secretion of the different fluids. The action of the arteries, called the pulse, corresponds with that of the heart, and is effected by the contraction of their muscular, and Arson, is an offence of great malignity, and more pernicious to the public than simple theft; because, first, it is an offence against that right of habitation which is acquired by the law of nature as well as by the laws of society; next, because of the terror and confusion that necessarily attends it; and, lastly, because in simple theft the thing stolen only changes its master, but still remains for the benefit of the public; whereas by burning, the very sub-great elasticity of their innermost coat. stance is absolutely destroyed.-It is also frequently more destructive than murder itself, of which too it is often the cause; since murder, atrocious as it is, seldom extends beyond the felonious act designed; whereas fire too frequently involves in the common calamity persons unknown to the incendiary, and not intended to be hurt by him, and friends as well as enemies. ART. As defined by Lord Bacon, is a proper disposal of natural objects, by human thought and experience, so as to answer the several purposes of mankind; in which sense the word Art stands opposed to Nature. It is also used for a system of rules, serving to facilitate the performance of certain actions, and is then opposed to Science, or a system of theoretical principles. ARTEL. In commerce, a name given to a commercial association, consisting of a certain number of laborers, who voluntarily become responsible as a body, for the honesty of each individual. The separate earnings of each man are put into the common stock; a monthly allowance is made for his support: and at the end of the year the surplus is equally divided. The number varies in different associations from 50 to 100; and it is considered so beneficial to belong to one of these societies, that 500, and even 1000 roubles are paid for admission. These societies are not bound by any law of the empire, or even written agreement; nor does the merchant restrain them under any legal obligation; yet there has been no instance of their objecting to any just claim, or of protecting an individual whose conduct had brought a demand on the society. Hence arises the denomination of Artilschisks, who are persons employed by the Russian merchants of St. Petersburgh, to collect payment on bills, to receive and pay money, and also to superintend the loading and unloading of the different cargoes. These Russians are mostly natives of Archangel, and the adjacent governments, of the lowest class; they are frequently slaves, generally of the crown; and yet the merchant has no reason to distrust their fidelity, partly from the nature of their association, and partly from the natural reluctance of the Russian to betray the confidence that is reposed in him. ARTERY. From ang, air, and now, to keep; because the ancients believed they carried the finer ARTICHOKE. The artichoke is a well-known plant, which is cultivated in Europe chiefly for culinary purposes. This plant was cultivated in England as early as the year 1580. The parts that are eaten are the receptacle of the flower, which is called the bottom, and a fleshy substance on the scales of the calyx. The choke consists of the unopened florets and the bristles that separate them from each other. These stand upon the receptacle, and must be cleared away before the bottom can be eaten. Its name undoubtedly arose from a notion, that any one, unlucky enough to get it into his throat, must certainly be choked.—In England, artichokes are generally boiled plain, and eaten with melted butter and pepper, and are considered both wholesome and nutritious. The bottoms are sometimes stewed, boiled in milk, or added to ragouts, French pies and other highly-seasoned dishes. For winter use, they may be slowly dried in an oven, and kept in paper bags, in a dry place. On the continent, artichokes are frequently eaten raw with salt and pepper. By the country people of France, the flowers of the artichoke are sometimes used to coagulate milk, for the purpose of making cheese. The leaves and stalks contain a bitter juice, which, mixed with an equal portion of white wine, has been successfully employed in the cure of dropsy, when other remedies have failed. The juice, prepared with bismuth, imparts a permanent gold color to wool. The Jerusalem artichoke is a somewhat potatoshaped root, produced by a species of sun-flower, which grows wild in several parts of South America. This plant bears single stalks, which are frequently eight or nine feet high, and yellow flowers, much smaller than those of the common species. So extremely productive are these valuable roots, that between seventy and eighty tons weight of them are said to have been obtained, in one season, from an acre of ground. They succeed in almost every soil; and, when once planted, will continue to flourish in the same place, without requiring much manure, or much attention to their culture. The season in which they are dug up for use, is from about the middle of September till November, when they are in the greatest perfection. After that, they may be preserved in sand, or under cover, for the winter. The roots are generally eaten plainly boiled, but they are sometimes served at table with fricassee-sauce, and in other ways. sentinel is found sleeping, his companions instantly Their flavor is so nearly like that of the common tear him in pieces for his neglect of duty. For the artichoke, that it is difficult to distinguish one from same purpose, when a troop of monkeys are comthe other. We are informed that Jerusalem arti-mitting depredations on the fruits of a garden, a chokes are valuable for hogs and store pigs; and that, if washed, cut, and ground in a mill similar to an apple-mill, they may also be given to horses. sentinel is placed on an eminence, who, when any person appears, makes a certain chattering noise, which the rest understand to be a signal for retreat, and immediately fly off and make their escape. The deer kind are remarkable for the arts they employ in order to deceive the dogs. With this view the stag often returns twice or thrice upon his former steps. He endeavors to raise hinds or younger stags to follow him, and to draw off the dogs from the immediate object of their pursuit. If he succeeds in this attempt, he then flies off with redoubled speed, or springs off at a side, and lies down on his belly to conceal himself. When in this situation, if by any means his foot is recovered by the dogs, they pursue him with more advantage, because he is now considerably fatigued. Their ardor increases in proportion to his feebleness; and the scent becomes stronger as he grows warm. From these circumstances the dogs augment their cries and their speed; and, though the stag employs more arts of escape than formerly, as his swiftness is diminished, his doublings and artifices become gradually less effectual. No other resource is now left him but to fly from the earth which he treads, and go into the waters, in order to cut off the scent from the dogs, when the huntsmen again endeavor to put them on the track of his foot. After taking to the water, the stag is so much exhausted that he ARTIFICERS. Among the Romans, had their peculiar temples, where they assembled and chose their own patron, or advocate, to defend their causes; they were exempted from all personal services. Taruntenus Paternus reckons thirty-two species of artificers, and Constantine thirty-five, who enjoyed this privilege. Artificers were held a degree below merchants, and argentarii or money-changers, and their employment more sordid. Some deny, that in the earliest ages of the Roman state, artificers were ranked in the number of citizens: others, who assert their citizenship, allow that they were held in contempt, as being unfit for war, and so poor that they could scarcely pay for taxes. For which reason they were not entered among the citizens in the censor's book; the design of the census being only to see what number of persons were yearly fit to bear arms, and to pay taxes towards the support of the state. In almost all ages, till the present, and under most forms of government, artificers have been too little respected. By means of the arts, the minds of men are engaged in inventions beneficial to the whole community; and thus prove the grand preservative against that barbarism and brutality, which ever attend indolence and induce stupidity. Ramarini has a treatise on the dis-is incapable of running much farther, and is soon eases of artificers. ARTIFICES OF ANIMALS. Many instances of the dexterity and artifices of different animals, in various parts of their manners and economy, are mentioned by naturalists in their several treatises on this subject; and, they are in a high degree interesting to the philosopher and to the common reader. The artifices practised by animals proceed from several motives, many of which are purely instinctive, and others are acquired by experience and imitation. Upon this subject we shall give some examples, which may both amuse and inform the reader. When a bear, or other rapacious animal, attacks cattle, they instantly join and form a phalanx for mutual defence. In the same circumstances, horses rank up in lines, and beat off the enemy with their heels. Pontoppidan tells us, that the small Norwegian horses, when attacked by bears, instead of striking with their hind legs, rear, and, by quick and repeated strokes with their fore feet, either kill the enemy, or oblige him to retire. This curious, and generally successful defence, is frequently performed in the woods, while a traveller is sitting on the horse's back. It has often been remarked, that troops of wild horses, when sleeping either in plains or in the forest, have always one of their number awake, who acts as a sentinel, and gives notice of any approaching danger. Margraaf informs us, that the monkeys in Brazil, while they are sleeping on the trees, have uniformly a sentinel to warn them of the approach of the tiger or other rapacious animals, and that, if ever this at bay, or, in other words, turns and defends himself against the hounds. In this situation he often wounds the dogs, and even the huntsmen, by blows with his horns, till one of them cuts his hams to make him fall, and then puts a period to his life. The fallow-deer is more delicate, less savage, and approaches nearer to the domestic state than the stag. They associate in herds, which generally keep together. When great numbers are assembled in one park, they commonly form themselves into two distinct troops, which soon become hostile, because they are both ambitious of possessing the same part of the enclosure. Each of these troops has its own chief or leader, who always marches foremost, and he is uniformly the oldest and strongest of the flock. The others follow him; and the whole draw up in order of battle, to force the other troop, who observe the same conduct, from the best pasture. The regularity with which these combats are conducted is singular. They make regular attacks, fight with courage, and never think themselves vanquished by one check; for the battle is daily renewed till the weaker are completely defeated, and obliged to remain in the worst pasture. They love elevated and hilly countries. When hunted, they run not straight out, like the stag, but double, and endeavor to conceal themselves from the dogs by various artifices, and by substituting other animals in their place. When fatigued and heated, however, they take the water; but never attempt to cross such large rivers as the stag. Thus, between the chase of the fallow-deer and of the stag, there is no material difference. Their sagacity and instincts, their shifts and doublings, are |