knowledge, arts, nor sciences; nor any improve-sembled by Gregory X. at Lyons, in 1272, the ment of mankind in virtue, or morals, or the prac- mendicants were reduced to a smaller number, tice of religion. Without memory, the soul of and confined to the four following societies, viz. man would be but a poor, destitute, naked being, the Dominicans, the Franciscans, the Carmelites, with an everlasting blank spread over it, except and the Augustines. As the pontiffs allowed these the fleeting ideas of the present moment. four mendicant orders the liberty of travelling wherever they thought proper, of conversing with persons of every rank, of instructing the people wherever they went, and as those monks exhibited, in their manner of life, more striking marks of gravity and holiness than the other monastic societies, they arose to the summit of saint, and were regarded with the utmost veneration through all Europe. They were employed, not only in spiritual matters, but also in temporal and political affairs of the greatest consequence, in composing the differences of princes, concluding treaties of peace, concerting alliances, presiding in cabinet councils, governing courts, levying taxes, and other occupations, absolutely inconsistent with the monastic character and profession. However, the power of the Dominicans and Franciscans greatly surpassed that of the other two orders; insomuch that they were, before the Reformation, what the Jesuits have been since, the very soul of the hierarchy. At last their pride and confidence arrived at such a pitch, that they had the presumption to declare, that they had a divine commission to illustrate and maintain the religion of Jesus; that the true method of obtaining salvation was revealed to them alone; proclaiming the superior efficacy of their indulgences, and boasting their interest with the Supreme Being, the Virgin Mary, and the Saints.

There is one great and general direction, which belongs to the improvement of other powers as well as of the memory, and that is, to keep it always in due and proper exercise. Many acts by degrees form a habit, and thereby the capacity or power is strengthened and made more retentive and ready. Due attention and diligence to learn and know the things which we would commit to our remembrance, is a rule of great necessity. There are some persons, who complain they cannot remember what they hear, when in truth their thoughts are wandering half the time, or they hear with such coldness and indifference, and a trifling temper of spirit, that it is no wonder the things which are read or spoken make but a slight impression, and soon vanish and are lost. If we would retain a long remembrance of the things which we read or hear, we should engage our delight and pleasure in those subjects, and use proper methods to fix the attention. Sloth and idleness will no more bless the mind with intellectual riches, than they will fill the hand with gain, the field with corn, or the purse with treasure.

Some persons are conceited of their abilities, and trust so much to an acuteness of parts denominated genius, that they think it superfluous labor to make any provision beforehand, and they sit still, therefore, satisfied without endeavoring to store their understanding with knowledge. Such should remember that we are born ignorant of every thing. God has made the intellectual world harmonious and beautiful without us; but it will never come into our heads all at once; we must bring it home by degrees, and there set it up by our own industry, or we shall have nothing but darkness and chaos within, whatever order and light there may be in things without us.

Others, on the contrary, depress their own minds, despond at the first difficulty, and conclude that getting an insight in any of the sciences, or making any progress in knowledge, farther than serves their ordinary business, is above their capacities. The proper remedy here is to set the mind to work, and apply the thoughts vigorously to the business; for it holds in the struggles of the mind, as in those of war, a persuasion that we shall overcome any difficulties that we may meet with in the sciences, seldom fails to carry us through them. Nobody knows the strength of his mind, and the force of steady and regular application, until he has tried.

MENDICANTS. Begging friars, who, having no settled revenues, are supported by the charitable contributions they receive from others. This class of society began in the thirteenth century, under Innocent III., who encouraged them as well as his successors. The members, by the tenor of their institution, were to remain entirely destitute of all fixed revenues and possessions. But they at last increased to such an enormous multitude, that they became a burden not only to the people, but to the church itself. In a general council, therefore, as

By these impious wiles they so deluded the blinded multitude, that they would not intrust any but the mendicants with the care of their souls. Towards the close of the fourteenth century, great numbers of both sexes requested admission into the order, as an infallible method of rendering heaven propitious. Many made it an essential part of their last wills, that their bodies after death should be wrapped in old ragged Dominican or Franciscan habits, and interred among the mendicants, to insure the divine mercy. But about the commencement of the fifteenth century they became the objects of general odium. Being, however, protected against all opposition by the popes, who regarded them as their most effectual supports, they suffered little from their numerous adversaries. Beside their arrogance, which was excessive, a quarrelsome and litigious spirit prevailed among them, and drew upon them justly the indignation of many. By affording refuge to the Beguines in their order they offended the bishops, and were thereby involved in difficulties of various kinds. They lost their credit in the sixteenth century by their rustic impudence, their ridiculous superstitions, their ignorance, cruelty, and brutish manners. They discovered the most barbarous aversion to the sciences, and to learned men, who endeavored to open the paths of science to the pursuits of the studious youth, recommended the culture of the mind, and attacked the barbarism of the age in their writings and discourses. Their general character concurred with other circumstances to render a reformation desirable, and to accomplish this happy event. Among the number of mendicants are also ranked the Capuchins,

Recollects, Minims, and other branches from them. Buchanan tells us, the mendicants in Scotland, under an appearance of beggary, lived a very luxurious life; whence one wittily called them, not mendicant but manducant friars.

MENSTRUUM. In Chemistry, any body which, in a fluid or subtilized state, is capable of interposing its small parts between the small parts of other bodies, so as to divide them subtilly, and constitute a new uniform mixture of the two.

MENSURATION. The art of measuring lines, superficies, and solids, which, in consequence of its extensive application to the purposes of life, is considered as of the greatest importance.

government, oblige all persons whatsoever to use their reasoning powers upon a thousand occasions every hour of life calls for some regular exercise of our judgment as to times and things, persons and actions; without a prudent and discreet determination in matters before us, we shall be plunged into perpetual errors in our conduct. Now that which should always be practised, must at some time be learned.

Besides, every son and daughter of Adam has a most important concern in the affairs of a life to come, and therefore it is a matter of the highest moment for every one to understand, to judge, and to reason right about the things of religion. It is vain for any to say, we have no leisure or time for it. The daily intervals of time, and vacancies Euclid treats of ensuration, as far as regards from necessary labor, together with the one day in surfaces, only of the measuring of triangles; and seven in the Christian world, allow sufficient opin regard to curvilinear figures, he attempted the portunity for this, if men would but apply themmeasurement of the circle and the sphere. Archi- selves to it with half so much zeal and diligence medes carried this subject to a much greater ex- as they do to the trifles and amusements of this tent: he found the area of a parabola to be two life; and it would turn to infinitely better account. thirds of its circumscribing triangle; which, with There are five eminent means or methods the exception of the lunules of Hippocrates, was whereby the mind is improved in the knowledge the first instance of the quadrature of a curvilinear of things; and these are observation, reading, inspace. He likewise determined the ratio of sphe-struction by lectures, conversation, and meditation, roids and conoids to their circumscribing cylinders, which last, in a peculiar manner, is called study. and has left us his attempt at the quadrature of the Observation is the notice that we take of all circle. He demonstrated that the arca of a circle occurrences in human life, whether they are sensiis equal to the area of a right-angled triangle, of ble or intellectual, whether relating to persons or which one of its sides about the right angle is equal things, to ourselves or others. It is this that furto the radius, and the other to the circumference; nishes us, even from our infancy, with a rich variand thus reduced the quadrature of the circle to ety of ideas and propositions, words and phrases. the determining the ratio of the circumference to All those things which we see, hear or feel, which the diameter; à problem, in the solution of which we perceive by sense or consciousness, or which he could only arrive at an approximation to the we know in a direct manner, with scarce any extruth, showing that the ratio between the circum-ercise of our reflecting faculties or our reasoning ference and the diameter was less than that of seven powers, may be included under the general name to twenty-two. What Archimedes failed to effect of observation. There is no time or place, no in this respect has continued to this day unattain-transactions, occurrences, or engagements in life, able, notwithstanding the efforts which have been which exclude us from this method of improving made by subsequent mathematicians, particularly the mind.

within the three last centuries, to arrive at a greater Reading is that means of knowledge, whereby approximation. As all hopes of accurately squar- we acquaint ourselves with the affairs, actions, and ing the circle and some other curves were at length thoughts of the living and the dead, in the most given up, mathematicians applied themselves to remote nations, and most distant ages. By readthe finding the most convenient series for approx-ing, we learn not only the actions and sentiments imating towards their true lengths and quadratures; of different nations and ages, but transfer to ourand the science of mensuration has in consequence assumed a more consistent form, as may be clearly seen in the treatises of Hawney, Robertson, Hutton, and Bonnycastle.

selves the knowledge and improvements of the most learned men, the wisest and best of mankind. It is another advantage of reading, that we may review what we have read; we may consult the page again and again, and meditate on it at successive periods in our retired hours. Unless a reader has an uncommon and most retentive memory, there is scarcely any book or chapter worth reading once that is not worthy of a second peru

MENTAL IMPROVEMENT. No man is obliged to learn and know every thing, for it is utterly impossible; yet all persons are under some obligation to improve their own understanding. Universal ignorance or infinite errors will over-sal. spread the mind which is neglected, and lies without cultivation. Skill in the sciences is indeed the business and profession but of a small part of mankind; but there are many others placed in such a rank in the world, as allows them much leisure and large opportunities to cultivate their reason, and enrich their minds with various knowledge.

The common duties and benefits of society, which belong to every man living, and even our necessary relations to a family, a neighborhood, or

Public or private lectures are such verbal instructions as are given by a teacher while the learners attend in silence. An instructer, when he paraphrases and explains other authors, can mark out the precise point of difficulty or controversy, and unfold it. When he teaches us natural philosophy, or most parts of mathematical learning, he can convey to our senses those notions, with which he would furnish our minds. He can make the experiments before our eyes. He can describe

figures and diagrams, point to the lines and angles, and by sensible means make out the demonstration in a more intelligible manner.

Conversation is that method of improving our minds, wherein by mutual discourse and inquiry we learn the sentiments of others, as well as communicate our own. By friendly conference, not only the doubts which arise in the mind upon any subject of discourse are easily proposed and solved, but the very difficulties we meet with in books and in our private studies may find a relief. A man of vast reading, without conversation, is like a miser, who lives only to himself.

composed, and from whence they come, the preparations of these materials before working up, and the places to which they are sent after their fabrication. 7. He ought to know the lengths and breadths which silk, woollen, or hair stuffs, linen, cottons, fustians, &c. ought to have, according to the several statutes and regulations of the places where they are manufactured, with their different prices, according to the times and seasons; and if he can add to his knowledge the different dies and ingredients which form the various colors, it will not be useless. 8. If he confines his trade to that of oils, wines, &c. he ought to inform himself particularly Meditation or study includes all those exercises of the appearances of the succeeding crops, in of the nind, whereby we render all the former order to regulate his disposing of what he has on methods useful, for our increase in truc knowledge | hand; and to learn as exactly as he can, what they and wisdom. By meditation we fix in our memo- have produced when got in, for his direction in ry whatsoever we learn, and form our own judg- making the necessary purchases and engagements. ment of the truth or falsehood, the strength or 9. He ought to be acquainted with the sorts of weakness of what others speak or write. Neither merchandise found more in one country than anour own observation, nor reading the works of the other, those which are scarce, their different spelearned, nor attendance on the best lectures of in- cies and qualities, and the most proper method for struction, nor enjoying the brightest conversation, bringing them to a good market, either by land or can ever make a man truly knowing and wise, sea. 10. To know which are the merchandises without the labors of his own reason in surveying, permitted or prohibited, as well on entering as examining, and judging, concerning all subjects going out of the kingdoms or states where they upon the best evidence he can acquire. are inade. 11. To be acquainted with the price of exchange, according to the course of different places, and what is the cause of its rise and fall. 12. To know the customs due on importation or exportation of merchandises, according to the which he trades. 13. To know the best manner usage, the tariffs, and regulations of the places to of folding up, embaling, or tunning the merchandises, for their preservation. 14. To understand the price and condition of freighting, and insuring ships and merchandise. 15. To be acquainted with the goodness and value of all necessaries for MERCHANT. A person who buys and sells the construction and repairs of shipping, the difcommodities in gross, or deals in exchanges; or ferent manner of their building, what the wood, that traffics in the way of commerce, either by the masts, cordage, cannons, sails, and all requisites importation or exportation. Formerly every one may cost. 16. To know the wages commonly who was a buyer or seller in the retail way was given to the captains, officers, and sailors, and the called a merchant, as they are still both in France manner of engaging with them. 17. He ought to and Holland; but in England and America, shop-understand the foreign languages, or at least as keepers, or those who attend fairs or markets, have lost that appellation.

MEPHITIC. Poisonous, like the Mephitis, or Damp, as it is called by the miners; as mephitic air, another name for nitrogen gas, on account of its noxious quality; and mephitic acid, carbonic acid, so called because it cannot be respired without causing death.

MERCATOR'S CHART. A sea chart, in which the parallels of latitude and the meridians are represented by straight lines.

many of them as he can attain to; these may be reduced to four, viz. the Spanish, which is used Previously to a person's engaging in a general not only in Spain, but on the coast of Africa, from trade, and becoming an universal dealer, he ought the Canaries to the Cape of Good Hope: the Italto treasure up such a fund of useful knowledge as ian, which is understood on all the coasts of the will enable him to carry it on with ease to himself, Mediterranean, and in many parts of the Levant: and without risking such losses as great, ill-con- the German, which is understood in almost all the certed undertakings would naturally expose him northern countries; and the French, which is now to. A merchant should therefore be acquainted become almost universally current. 18. He ought with the following parts of commercial learning: to be acquainted with the consular jurisdiction, 1. He should write properly and correctly. 2. with the laws, customs, and usages of the different Understand all the rules of arithmetic that have countries he does or may trade to; and in general any relation to commerce. 3. Know how to keep all the ordinances and regulations, both at home books of double and single entry, as journals, a and abroad, that have any relation to commerce. ledger, &c. 4. Be expert in the forms of invoices, 19. Though it is not necessary for a merchant to accounts of sales, policies of insurance, charter- be very learned, it is proper that he should know parties, bills of lading, and bills of exchange. 5. something of history, particularly that of his own Know the agreement between the money, weights, country, geography, hydrography, or the science and measures of all parts. 6. If he deals in silk, of navigation, and that he is acquainted with the woollen, linen, or hair manufactures, he ought to discoveries of the countries in which trade is esknow the places where the different sorts of mer-tablished, in what manner it is settled, of the comchandises are manufactured, in what manner they panies formed to support those establishments, and are made, what are the materials of which they are of the colonies they have sent out.

MERIDIAN. In Geography, is a great circle passing through the poles of the earth, and some given place on its surface. It therefore divides this surface into two hemispheres, the eastern and the western. As the terrestrial' meridian is the circle over which the sun is at noon, it is consequently in the plane of the celestial meridian with which the centre of the sun coincides at that time. Now as, by the earth's revolution about its axis from west to east once in twenty-four hours, every part of the equator is successively presented to the sun, all places that are situated eastward or westIt would require 20,000,000 bodies of the ward of each other have their respective meridimagnitude of this planet to make one of equal ans. It is, therefore, always the same hour of the day at all places situated on the same meridian.

The first meridian of a country is that from less than 14,500 have been delivered per week, which its geographers, navigators, and astronomers, into the ordnance office for the use of government. commence their reckoning of longitude; and, the In Birmingham, also, buttons of every description meridians having nothing in themselves to distin- are manufactured to an incalculable extent; and, it guish them from each other, the fixing upon any is said, that at the pin works, 12,000 pins can be cut one for this purpose is quite arbitrary; hence dif- and pointed in an hour. London and Liverpool ferent persons, nations, and ages, have commenced produce the best clocks and watches in use; and their longitudes at different points, which has in- the former is unrivalled in the construction of troduced no small confusion into geography. But mathematical, astronomical, and philosophical innational and even scientific jealousies are too struments. It has been estimated, that the iron, tin, strongly prevalent for us to hope that the world and lead manufactures of that country, may be will at an early period fix on a common first me- valued at £10,000,000, employing 200,000 persons; ridian. those of copper and brass, may be valued at £3,600,000, employing 60,000 persons; and those MERIDIANI. In Antiquity, a name given by of steel, plating, hardware, and toys, may be valued the Romans to gladiators who entered the arena at £4,000,000, employing at least 70,000 persons,about noon, after the restiarii had finished; so call- making a total amount of £17,600,000, and giving ed from the time when they exhibited their prow-employment to 330,000 persons. ess. They were a sort of artless combatants, who fought man with man, sword in hand. Hence Seneca observes, that the combats of the morning with beasts were full of humanity, compared with those which followed.

MESNE PROCESS. In Law, an intermediate process, which issues pending the suit, upon some collateral matter; also, all such process as intervenes between the beginning and end of a suit.

MESANGIA. The name of a bird common in France and Italy; it is of the size and shape of the ficedula, and differs from it very little, except the having a black spot upon the head. This seems to be the melanchory phus of the ancients, who supposed, as many do at this time, that the ficedula changed into this bird. The ficedula, or fig-eater, comes into the gardens in France only at the time when the figs, which are its proper food, are ripe; these it devours in an insatiable manner, and, as soon as it has done with them, goes away again. Soon after this the mesangia or black-cap appears, and is supposed to be the same bird, with the addition of this beautiful ornament. The ancients were very fond of this imaginary change of one bird into another; and Aristotle tells us, that the upupa is the same bird with the cuckoo, only changed in the color, and disposition of its feathers. Eschylus tells us in the same manner, according to the opinion of his times, that the cuckoo sings all the summer, and after that disappears; and that soon afterwards it comes again in a new form, with a plume upon its head, and is called the upupa.

METALS. The working of metals appears to be the foundation of all the arts, and forms the nost important employment of civilized man. This fact is the most evident, as the principal tools and instruments, used in almost every description of labor, are made of metal. Hence, in all countries, where there are advances made in civilisation, we find corresponding degrees of perfection in the manufacture of this material. England, probably, surpasses every other nation in this respect, whether we consider the extent, variety, or excellence of ts metallic productions. Sheffield is unrivalled in ts cutlery; and Birmingham has been called the oy shop of Europe. It has been stated, that from he musket establishment of the latter place, no

Germany is said to rank next to England in metallic manufactures. In Prussia, many articles are made with peculiar ingenuity and skill. Clocks and watches are made in great numbers, in Switzerland, France, and Germany; but they are generally inferior in quality to those made in England. Jewelry is manufactured to a great extent, in France, Switzerland, and the Netherlands; and France is distinguished for the more elegant metallic articles. Holland and Germany are remarkable for toys. Turkey, and especially Damascus, has long been celebrated for unrivalled skill in the manufacture of sword blades, and other cutting instruments. The Damascus sabres are of such peculiar quality as to be perfectly elastic; they never break; and iron will yield under their edge. This art has extended to Prussia, and some of the neighboring countries. The Japanese are said to surpass the Chinese and Hindoos, in working metals; to make instruments of steel, little inferior to those of Turkey.

METALLURGY. The art of working metals, so as to separate them from the ore. It may also comprehend the several operations by which they are rendered available to particular purposes, as assaying, gilding, refining, smelting, &c.

METAMORPHOSIS. In general, denotes the changing of something into a different form; in which sense, it includes the transformation of insects, as well as the mythological changes related by the ancient poets.

Mythological metamorphoses were held to be of two kinds, apparent and real. Thus, that of Jupiter into a bull, was only apparent; whereas that of Lycaon into a wolf, was supposed to be real.

Most of the ancient metamorphoses include some allegorical meaning, relating either to physics or morality. Some authors are even of opinion, that a great part of the ancient philosophy_is couched under them; and Lord Bacon and Dr. Hook have attempted to unriddle several of them.

METAPHOR. In Poetry. A metaphor differs from a simile in form only, not in substance: in a simile the two subjects are kept distinct in the expression as well as in the thought; in a metaphor the two subjects are kept distinct in the thought only, not in the expression. For example, Homer