of a paper kite, properly fitted up for the purpose, with a long fine wire string, which he raised when a thunder storm was perceived to be coming on; and with the electricity thus obtained, he charged phials, kindled spirits, and performed all other such electrical experiments, as are usually exhibited by an excited glass globe or cylinder. By a number of experiments Mr. Canton soon after observed that some clouds were in a positive, while some were in a negative state of electricity; and that the electricity of his conductor would sometimes change from one state to the other, five or six times in less than half an hour. How it happens that particular parts of the earth, or the clouds, come into the opposite states of positive and negative electricity, is a question not absolutely determined, though it is easy to conceive that when particular clouds, or different parts of the earth, possess opposite electricities, a discharge will take place within a certain distance; or the one will strike into the other, and in the discharge a flash of lightning will be seen. Mr. Canton inquires whether clouds do not become possessed of electricity by the gradual heating and cooling of the air; and whether air suddenly rarefied, may not give electric fire to clouds and vapors passing through it, and air suddenly condensed receive electric fire from them. Mr. Wilcke supposes, that the air contracts its electricity in the same manner that sulphur and other substances do, when they are heated and cooled in contact with various bodies. Thus, the air being heated or cooled near the earth, gives electricity to the earth, or receives it from it; and the electrified air being conveyed upwards by various means, communicates its electricity to the clouds. Others have suggested, whether since thunder commonly happens in a sultry state of the air, when it seems charged with sulphureous vapors, the electric matter then in the clouds may not be generated by the fermentation of sulphureous vapors with mineral or acid vapors in the air. Some physicians are of opinion, that when a person is killed by lightning, there is an instantaneous and total destruction of the vital principle in every part of the animal machine, and consequently that any effort to restore animation would be useless; but others suppose that the influence of lightning, or of a powerful shock of clectricity, is chiefly expended in disturbing or destroying the functions of the brain, and that, therefore, cases may occur in which suspended animation might be restored by preserving the animal heat, and maintaining artificial respiration till the body resumes its functions.

LIMBS, ARTIFICIAL. Under this denomination, surgical writers speak of the various machines and contrivances which have been invented for supplying the place, and in some measure executing the office, of limbs which are naturally imperfect or wanting, or which have been amputated, or otherwise lost. Anciently, it was as much the duty of the surgeon to provide his patient with a wooden leg after amputation, as to cut off the member, which endangered life and could not be preserved. At present, however, the business of furnishing artificial limbs is left almost entirely to the mechanic, though it cannot be denied, that the attention of a judicious surgeon will often be well bestowed in taking care, that the pressure of such machines is contrived to fall as little as possible upon that part of a stump which is most tender, and inclined to ulcerate. The end of a thighstump, indeed, can ill bear the effects of pressure, and in this case, it is usual to make the thigh part of the wooden member in the form of a conical box, which is calculated to receive the stump, and at the same time not allow the end of the bone to meet with any material resistance below. The pressure partly falls on the sides of the remaining portion of the thigh, and partly on the pelvis, round which a strap proceeds from the upper part of the machine. Artificial hands and arms may also be procured, which have movable fingers, and by the ingenuity of the mechanism, may be made to perform many little useful offices in grasping and holding things.

LIME. Lime, or calcareous earth, predominates in most stones which are soft enough to be scratched with a knife. These are chalk, limestone, marble, spars, gypsum, or plaster-stone, and various others. As the lime is most frequently combined with carbonic acid, it is usual for mineralogists to drop a small quantity of nitric acid upon the stones they are desirous of classing; and if they froth by the escape of the acid, they conclude that lime enters into the composition. To obtain pure calcareous earth, powdered chalk must be repeatedly boiled in water, which will deprive it of the saline impurities it frequently contains. It must then be dissolved in distilled vinegar, and precipitated by the addition of concrete volatile alkali. The precipitate, when well washed and dried, will consist of lime united to carbonic acid; the latter of which may be driven off by heat, if necessary.

If chalk, marble, limestone, spar, or any other specimens of this earth, containing carbonic acid, be exposed to continued ignition, they give out carbonic acid and water, to the amount of nearly half their weight. The remainder, consisting chiefly of lime, has a strong tendency to combination, and attracts water very powerfully. The addition of water to lime produces a very considerable heat, attended with noise, and agitation of the parts, which break asunder; a considerable vapor arises, which carries up with it part of the lime; and a phosphoric light is seen, if the experiment be made in the dark. Lime thus saturated with water is said to be slaked. Water dissolves about one five-hundredth part of its weight of lime, and LILAC. A tree of the syringa tribe, which is then called limewater. This solution has an bears a pretty flower early in the spring.

LIGNUM VITÆ. Guaiacum or pockwood, a genus of plants, native of warm climates. The common Lignum vitæ is a native of the warm climates of America. It becomes a large tree, having a hard, brownish, brittle bark, and its wood firm, solid, ponderous, very resinous, of blackish yellow color in the middle, and of a hot aromatic taste. It is of considerable use in medicine and the mechanic arts, being wrought into utensils, cogs, and various articles of turnery.

acrid taste, and turns sirup of violets to a green

color. If lime-water be exposed to the open air, the lime attracts carbonic acid, and is by this means converted into chalk; which, not being soluble in water, forms a crust on the surface, formerly called cream of lime, which, when of a certain thickness, breaks, and falls to the bottom: and in this way the whole of the lime will in time be separated. If the fire have been too violent in the burning of lime, the stones become hard, sonorous, and incapable of absorbing water with the requisité degree of avidity. This effect seems to arise from part of the calcareous earth having entered into fusion with the clay, flint, or other contaminating earths, with which it forms a glass that covers and defends the rest.

The paste of lime and water, called mortar, has a degree of adhesion and ductility, though much less than clay. When dry, it is more or less friable, like chalk. A mixture of sand, or broken earthen vessels, greatly increases its firmness, which it seems to effect by rendering it more difficult for the parts to be removed with respect to each other. When mortar is left to dry by the gradual evaporation of its superfluous water, it is very long before it obtains its utmost degree of firmness. But if dry quicklime be mixed with mortar, it gradually absorbs the superfluous water, and the mass becomes solid in a very short time.

cases where an external stimulus is required; and the carron oil, a liniment of great efficacy in burns and scalds, made of olive oil and lime-water equal parts. The tincture of soap, alone or with opium, is called anodyne liniment or opodeldoc, and is used to rub parts of the body affected with rheumatic or other pains. Stimulant liniments are useful in chronic diseases of the viscera, both by their own powers exciting the skin to action, and by relieving the internal parts; and also by the friction itself.

LINNÆAN SYSTEM. A system of natural history, so called from Linnæus, the Swedish naturalist. It comprehends a scientific arrangement of all natural objects, as animals, plants, and minerals into three kingdoms, subdivided into classes, orders, genera, species, and varieties, with a description of their generic and specific characters.

LINEN. In Commerce. The linen manufacture was probably introduced into Britain with the first settlements of the Romans. The flax was certainly first planted by that nation in the British soil. The plant itself indeed appears to have been originally a native of the east. The woollen drapery would naturally be prior in its origin to the linen, and the fibrous plants from which the threads of the latter are produced, seem to have been first noticed and worked by the inhabitants of Egypt. In Egypt, indeed, the linen manufacture appears to have been very early; for even in Joseph's time it had risen to a considerable height. From the Egyptians the knowledge of it proceeded probably to the Greeks, and from them to the Romans.

Lime has an affinity for tannin, whence it is probable that a portion of it is retained in tanned leather, perhaps not to the improvement of its quality. It has an edulcorative power with respect to animal oils, by combining with the putrid gelatine in them; but its action on them in forming a soap is too strong to admit of its being used for this purpose with advantage, unless in small quantities. Feathers, however, may be very conveni- LINNET. A small singing bird, of the finch ently cleaned by steeping three or four days in kind. The bird in America called indigo bird is a strong lime-water, and afterward washing and dry-variety of the linnet. ing them.

LIMESTONE. The native carbonate of lime, which is generally rather blue, from the presence of iron.

LIMITATION. In Law, a certain time prescribed by statute, within which an action must be brought.

LINSPINS, or LINCHPINS. Small pins of iron, which keep the wheel of a cannon, or wagon, on the axle-tree; for when the end of the axle-tree is put through the nave, the linspin is put in to keep the wheel from falling off.

LION The lion, like all other cats, is armed, in each jaw, with six strong and exceedingly sharp cutting teeth, two formidable canine, and six othLINKIO. In Botany, a kind of water-planters, occupying the usual place of the molars, but among the Chinese, the fruit of which is of a differing from these by terminating in sharp protriangular pyramidical form, prominent every way, tuberances. Besides these, there is a small tooth, with a green thick rind, that grows reddish towards or tubercle, on each side of the upper jaw, immethe арех, and, when the fruit is dried, grows black. diately posterior to all the others. The tongue is The internal substance is exceeding white, its taste covered with rough and elevated papillæ, with like that of the chestnut, three or four of which it their points directed backwards. The claws, equals in bulk. The plant is found in standing which are five in number on the fore feet, and four waters, and has very slender leaves, that spread on the hinder, are of great length, extremely powthemselves over a large extent on the surface of erful, and much curved; like those of the other the water, and the fruit lies concealed under wa- cats, they are retractile within a sheath enclosed in ter in great numbers. the skin covering the paws. The lion is distinguished from his kindred species by the uniformity of his color, which is pale tawny above, becoming somewhat lighter beneath, and never, except while very young, exhibiting any markings; and also by the long and flowing mane of the old male, which, covering the whole head, extends backwards over his shoulders.

LINIMENT. An oily or spirituous preparation for external use, of a consistence not so thick as an ointment. There are various useful liniments employed in medicine; the volatile liniment, of various strength, made of ammonia and oil, and applied very beneficially in sore throats, and other

Notwithstanding the praises that have, from in captivity; but this has been shown to be errotime immemorial, been bestowed on this animal, neous in some degree. It appears, however, that, for grateful affection, dauntless courage, and mer- in summer time, and especially before atmospheric ciful forbearance, he is nothing more, in moral changes, he uniformly commences about dawn; and intellectual faculties, than a cat of immense at no other time is there any regularity in his roar. size and strength, and endowed with all the guile- When enraged, his cry is still more appalling than ful and treacherous qualities of that treacherous his roar, he then beats his sides with his tail, agitribe. His dauntless courage is a mere conscious- tates his mane, moves the skin of his face and his ness of superiority over the animals by which he shaggy eyebrows, thrusts out his tongue, and prois surrounded, and wholly disappears in the neigh- trudes his dreadful claws. The lion requires about borhood of man; his merciful forbearance is no-sixteen pounds of raw flesh a day; he drinks often, thing more than that he never destroys more than lapping like a dog; but in this process his tongue satiates his hunger or revenge, and that, when un- is bent downward: his breath is very offensive, der the dominion of man, he suffers his keeper to and the odor of his urine insupportable. approach him without injury. The lion is only There is some variation, in the lions of different met with in the warmer regions of the old world, countries in external appearance, though, in essenand more particularly of Africa, in whose vast tial particulars, their habits are identical. The forests and arid deserts he reigns supreme and un- Asiatic variety seldom attains an equal size with controlled. He is met with, but rarely, in parts of the Cape lion; its color is a more uniform and India, Arabia and Persia, but his range in these pale yellow, and its mane fuller and more comcountries is becoming very limited. From Libya, plete, and being, moreover, furnished with a pecuwhence the Romans obtained so many, he has al- liar appendage of long hairs, which, commencing most disappeared; and in classic Greece, where, beneath the neck, occupy the whole of the middle we are informed by Aristotle, he once occurred, line of the body beneath. Even the Cape lion none are to be found. presents two varieties, known as the pale and the In America, this species never occurred, its black, distinguished, as their appellations imply, place being supplied by the puma. Naturalists by the lighter or darker color of their coats. The have differed greatly as to the longevity of this latter of these is the larger and more ferocious of animal. Buffon stated it to be from twenty to the two. The Barbary lion has the same full mane twenty-two years; but it far exceeds this, as the as the Asiatic, but exceeds him in size. The numone in the Tower of London, which died in 1760, ber of lions, as has been observed, has greatly dilived in captivity above seventy years; and another minished, judging from the multitudes spoken of died in the same place, at the age of sixty-three. by ancient writers, and those carried to Rome. The lioness brings forth from three to four at a Thus Sylla the dictator exhibited, during bis prebirth. The cubs when first born are about the torship, one hundred of these animals; and Pomsize of a small pug dog, and continue to suck the pey presented six hundred in the circus. Lion mother for about a year. At this time, their color fights were common under the consulate, and duris a mixture of reddish and gray, with a numbering the empire, Adrian, it is said, often caused one of brown bands. The mane of the male begins to make its appearance when the animal is about three to three years and a half old. The male attains maturity in seven and the female in six At the Cape of Good Hope, lions are hunted, years. The strength of the lion is prodigious, a not only for the purpose of extermination, but also single stroke with his paw being sufficient to de- for their skins. In the daytime, and in an open stroy most animals. The bone of the fore leg is country, from ten to sixteen dogs will easily overremarkably fitted to sustain the great muscular | come a lion of the largest size; nor does there apstrain so powerful an exertion occasions. Its tex-pear to be any necessity that the dogs should be ture is so compact, that it will strike fire with steel. The lurking place of the lion is generally chosen near a spring, or by the side of a river, where he has an opportunity of surprising such animals as resort to the water to quench their thirst. Here he lies in wait, crouched in some thicket, till his prey approaches, and then, with a prodigious leap, seizes it at the first bound; if, however, unsuccessful in this, he immediately retires to await another opportunity. In the night, more particularly, the lion prowls abroad in search of his prey, the conformation of his eyes being, like those of the common cat, well fitted for seeing in a dim light.

The roar of the lion is loud and terrific, especially when heard in the solitary wilds he inhabits: this roar is his natural voice; for, when enraged, he utters a short and suddenly repeated cry, while the roar is a prolonged effort, a kind of deep toned grumbling, mixed with a sharp, vibrating noise. It has been usually stated, that the lion had constant and stated times for roaring, especially when

hundred to be destroyed at one exhibition; and Antoninus Pius and Marcus Aurelius were equally prodigal in gratifying the people.

very large; as he is less swift than these animals, they readily overtake him, on which the lion turns round, and waits for the attack, shaking his mane, and roaring in a short and sharp tone, or sits down on his haunches to face them. The dogs then surround him, and, simultaneously rushing upon him, subdue him by their united efforts, though not before he has destroyed several of them. But the mode of destroying them, usual among the Bushmen, is by shooting them, either with firearms or poisoned arrows. The inhabitants know that the lion generally kills and devours his prey at sunrise and sunset. On this account, therefore, when they intend to hunt them, they notice where the antelopes are feeding at daybreak: if they perceive that these animals are alarmed, they conclude that they have been attacked by a lion. Marking the spot whence the alarm took place, about mid-day, when the sun is very powerful, and the object of their attack asleep, they carefully examine the ground, and, if they find him, they lodge

a bullet or poisoned arrow in him. Sometimes, however, he is fairly brought to bay in the daytime, by the hunter, as the following account from Pringle testifies. After his retreat is found, the approved plan is to torment him with dogs till he abandons his covert, and stands at bay in the open plain.

If he

of liquorice, as being brought originally from Spain. This has the same virtues as the root itself; and is to be chosen firm, but not tough; hard; and, when broken, of a fine shining surface; such as melts in the month without leaving any harsh or gritty particles in the teeth, and does not taste of burning.

LITANY. A solemn form of supplication to God, in which the priest utters some things fit to be prayed for, and the people join in their intercession, saying, 'We beseech Thee to hear us, good Lord,' &c.

'The whole band of hunters then march forward together, and fire deliberately one by one. does not speedily fall, but grows angry, and turns upon his enemies, they must then stand close in a circle, and turn their horses' rear outward, some holding them fast by the bridles, while the others kneel to take a steady aim at the lion as he ap- At first, the use of litanies was not fixed to any proaches, sometimes up to the very horses' heels, stated time, but were only employed as exigencies crouching every now and then, as if to measure required. They were observed, in imitation of the the distance and strength of his enemies. This is Ninevites, with ardent supplications and fastings, the moment to shoot him fairly in the forehead, or to avert the threatening judgments of fire, earthsome other mortal part. If they continue to wound quakes, inundations, or hostile invasions. About him ineffectually, till he becomes furious and des- the year 400, litanies began to be used in procesperate, or if the horses, startled by his terrific roar, sions, the people walking barefoot, and repeating grow frantic with terror, and burst loose, the busi- them with great devotion; and it is pretended, ness becomes rather serious, and may end in mis- that by this means, several countries were deliverchief, especially if all the party are not men of ed from great calamities. The days on which courage, coolness and experience.' Very full ac- these were used were called rogation days: these counts of the lion and his habits are to be found in were appointed by the canons of different counthe travels of Sparmann, Barlow, Levaillant, Bur-cils, till it was decreed by the council of Toledo, chell, &c., in Southern Africa, and also in the Library of Entertaining Knowledge, and the Tower Menagerie, from which the above account has been condensed.

LINSTOCK. A short staff of wood, about three feet long, having at one end a piece of iron divided into two branches, each of which has a notch to hold a piece of match, and a screw to fasten it there; the other end being also shod with iron, and pointed to stick into the ground, or in the deck when it is used at sea. It is used by the gunners in firing cannon. It is frequently used in small vessels, in an engagement, where there is commonly one fixed between every two guns, by which the match is always kept dry and ready for tiring.

that they should be used every month throughout the year; and thus by degrees they came to be used weekly on Wednesdays and Fridays, the ancient stationary days for fasting.

LITERARY PROPERTY. Literary property. or copy right, is the right which an author may be supposed to have in his own original literary compositions; so that no other persons, without his lave, may publish or make profit of the copies. As this right has become of great importance in modern times, and has occasionally been made the subject of very interesting discussion, it may be proper to bring under the view of our readers the substance of the various opinions which have been entertained, and the different laws which have been enacted, relative to this matter.

That every individual, engaged in a lawful ocLIQUID. Fluids have been divided into two cupation, has a right to dispose of the produce, and classes; viz. those which are elastic, and the non-enjoy the fruits of his labor, is a proposition conelastic, or those which do not sensibly diminish in sistent with the most obvious rules of justice. bulk when subjected to pressure. The first class Accordingly, as Blackstone observes, when a man, are airs or gases, the second liquids: hence we by the exertion of his rational powers, has producinay define a liquid to be a fluid not sensibly elas-ed an original work, he has clearly a right to distic, the parts of which yield to the smallest im-pose of that identical work as he pleases, and any pression, and move on each other. When liquid attempt to take it from him, or vary the disposibodies are mixed together, they act in various tion he has made of it, is an invasion of his right ways according to the nature of the substances of property. Now, the identity of a literary comemployed. Some dissolve each other in any pro-position consists entirely in the sentiments and the portion, as is the case with most gases when mixed; language; the same conceptions, clothed in the some unite in determinate proportions; some do same words, must necessarily be the same componot act sensibly upon each other, separating again,sition; and whatever method be taken of conveythough mixed ever so carefully; and some decom-ing that composition to the ear or the eye of anpose each other.

LIQUORICE. In the Materia Medica, the root of a plant, called, by botanists, glycyrrbizza,

It is an excellent medicine in coughs, and all disorders of the breast and lungs. The only simple preparation of it in use, is its inspissated juice, commonly known by the name of Spanish juice

other, by recital, by writing, or by printing any number of copies, or at any period of time, it is always the identical work of the author which is so conveyed; and no other man can have a right to convey or transfer it without his consent, either tacitly or expressly given. This consent may perhaps be tacitly given, when an author permits his work to be published, without any reserve of

right, and without stamping on it any marks of authorship. But in case of a bargain for a single impression, or a sale or gift of the copy-right, the reversion is plainly continued in the original proprietor, or the whole property transferred to another.

thet given to such persons, among the Chinese, as are able to read and write their language. The literati alone are capable of being made mandarins. The literati form the most distinguished part of the Chinese nation. Since the dynasty of Han, i. e. for more than two thousand years, they have conOn the other hand, it has been urged, that, al- stantly held the chief rank in the empire; and it though an author possesses an exclusive right to is always from among them that masters are chosen his manuscript, and all which it contains, before it for the education of youth; ministers for the adis printed or published; yet that, from the instant ministration of public affairs; and magistrates, for of publication, this right ceases, as being of a na-judging the people: in a word, the literati are, in ture too subtile and unsubstantial to be protected some measure, the soul of the Chinese nation, by the common law, without being guarded by since it is from them that it receives its moral expositive statute and special provision. istence, and its civil and political being. The litIt may be observed, however, that the question erati must therefore be very numerous in a state, with regard to literary property is of very modern where they enjoy every distinction attached to predate, and could only arise at a very advanced stage eminence, and where every thing favors their inin the progress of the arts and civilisation. Before crease. Since learning is the only means that the art of printing was invented, indeed, and while conduct to honors, it is necessary that those who copies of books could only be obtained by the te- aspire to them should cultivate letters; and they dious method of transcribing, it is evident that must make it appear, that they have cultivated authors could derive but little pecuniary advantage them with success, before they can obtain any civil from the sale of their performances. But although employment. To guard against imposition, govthere is no doubt that the earliest and best works ernment has fixed for every city of the first, secof antiquity were written and communicated toond, and third class, the number of literati who the world from no prospect of gain, yet we may can be legally promoted every year to the first degather from several passages in Latin authors, that gree of literature, and which answers to bachelor sales of literary copies, for the purposes of recital of arts in our universities. Of these there are or multiplication, were not unknown to the Ro- reckoned to be in China twenty-four thousand mans, but appear to be as ancient as the times of seven hundred and one individuals, who are annuTerence, Martial, and Statius. In the civil law, ally introduced to the first degree of literati; and however, we find no mention made of any prop- the number of those admitted before may be superty in the works of the understanding; nor does posed to be at least twenty times as great. Acit appear that their lawyers ever entertained an cording to this estimate there are always in China idea that authors, after publication, could prohibit four hundred and ninety-four thousand and twenty others from transcribing their compositions. literati, who have taken degrees, and who are, consequently, not included among the taxables.

we meet with, in shops, is produced in the purification of silver from lead, and the refining of gold and silver, by means of this metal. According to the degree of fire, and other circumstances, it proves of a pale or deep color. The first has been commonly called litharge of silver; the other, litharge of gold.

On the discovery of the art of printing, the first inventors were very desirous to monopolize it; and, therefore, did their utmost to conceal the LITHARGE. A preparation of lead, usually process. But, in spite of their endeavors, it soon in forin of soft flakes, of a yellow reddish color. spread; printers multiplied, and interfered with If calcined lead be urged with a hasty fire, it melts one another, as must always be the case, in a into the appearance of oil, and, on cooling, congreater or less degree, with persons who are concretes into litharge. The greatest part of litharge cerned in the same trade. In order to prevent this inconvenience, some of the early printers applied to the Pope, the republic of Venice, and the duke of Florence, to get the sole privilege of printing the books of which they were the first publishers; and this they obtained for a term of years, seldom exceeding fourteen, and often not so long, as appears from the first editions of the classics, to which LITHOGRAPHIC. An epithet for what perpatents are commonly prefixed. Hence it would appear, that literary property was originally a priv-pressions, those which are taken on paper from tains to engraving on stone, as lithographic imilege granted, not to authors, to encourage them to write, but to printers, to induce them to print editions of works which were then in manuscript. But the transition, from the encouragement of printers to that of authors, was natural and obvious; and accordingly, soon after, privileges appear in favor of the author, which are by him commonly assigned to the bookseller, whose name is marked on the title page. Upon this footing, therefore, the matter stood throughout Europe: The abstract right does not appear to have been legally recognised; but privileges were granted from favor, and with a view to public expediency.

engravings on stone.

LITURGY. A name given to those set forms of prayer, which have been generally used in the Christian church. The liturgy of the Church of England was composed in the year 1547; since which time, it has undergone several alterations, the last of which was in the year 1661.

LITMUS. In Chemistry, a substance from which is formed a tincture that serves as a test of the presence of an acid or an alkali. All acids and salts change the natural violet of the litmus into red, and all alkalies restore it to its natural

LITERATI, LETRADOS. Lettered, an epi- I color, the violet.