A snuff in the centre of the flame, produces a smoke, and a great diminution of light, which it occasions, by increasing the body of the wick; and as the air cannot have free access to the wick in the centre of the flame, the gas there produced cannot burn immediately, but must rise upwards, and will inflame when it gets high enough to meet the air, provided it then retains a sufficient heat. This ascent of the vapor before it inflames, is the cause of the pyramidal form of the flame, the vapor arising from the central parts of the wick being obliged to rise to a greater height before it can meet with sufficient oxygen to burn. A large snuff to a lamp or candle, occupies the space that should be filled with flame, and thereby diminishes the heat; it also divides the flame into several small points, instead of being in one pyramid. The real point of the pyramid is wanting; and great part of the gas which should form this point rises in smoke, for want of sufficient heat to make it burn when it has risen into the open air. On the other hand, a wick, which is too little raised above the nozzle, or tube which holds the wick, will not volatilize the oil so fast as it draws it up, because the heated body of wick through which the oil is diffused, is too small in proportion to the quantity of oil contained in it: hence the action of the flame is exerted upon too large a quantity at once to volatilize it perfectly. Still what is volatilized is perfectly burned, and smoke is not produced; but the flame is diminutive, and liable to be extinguished by any shock or current of air. LANCE, LANCEA. A spear, an offensive weapon, borne by the ancient cavaliers, in form of a half pike. The lance, or spear, is among the oldest weapons recorded in history, and is nearly coeval with the sword or bow; it probably originated in a pole or stake, sharpened at one or both ends, afterwards arned with a head of flint, and in process of time, on the discovery and use of metals, with copper, brass, and iron. Flint heads for both spears and arrows are frequently found in England, Scotland, and Ireland, and so are also spear, javelin, and arrow heads of a metal nearly resembling brass. The spear, lance, javelin, darts of different kinds, and even the more modern pikes, are all comprehended under one common description of a long staff, rod, or pole, armed with a pointed head of stone or metal at one or both ends, constructed for the purpose of piercing, or wounding with their points only, either by being pushed or thrown with the hand. LANCE, HOLY. The lance which, in legendary story, is said to have pierced the side of our Redeemer. In the time of the Crusades, when Antioch was besieged, a priest of the diocese of Marseilles, called Peter Bartholemy, pretended to have received from St. Andrew, during his sleep, the following instruction. At Antioch,' said the apostle, in the church of my brother, St. Peter, near the high altar, is concealed the steel head of the lance that pierced the side of our Redeemer. In three days that instrument of eternal, and now LAMENTATIONS. A canonical book of the of temporal salvation, will be manifested to his Old Testament, written by the prophet Jeremiah, disciples. Search, and ye shall find; bear it aloft on occasion of Josiah's death, according to arch- in battle; and that mystic weapon shall penetrate bishop Usher and some other learned men, who the souls of the miscreants.' This revelation was follow the opinion of Josephus and St. Jerome. respectfully received by count Raymond, whom But as this opinion does not agree with the subject his faithful subject, in the name of the apostle, of the book, the lamentation composed by Jere- had chosen for the guardian of the holy lance. miah on that occasion is probably lost. The first After some previous ceremonies, the ground was two chapters are employed in describing the ca- opened at the appointed place; and search was lamities of the siege of Jerusalem: in the third unsuccessfully made for the lance. After the the author deplores the persecutions he himself count and his companions had withdrawn, the had suffered the fourth treats of the desolation artful priest descended into the pit; and, availing of the city and temple, and the misfortune of Ze-himself of darkness and solitude, contrived to sedekiah: the fifth is a prayer for the Jews in their dispersion and captivity: and at the close of all he speaks of the cruelty of the Edomites, who had insulted Jerusalem in her misery. All the chapters in this book except the last, are in verse, and digested in the order of the alphabet; with this difference, that in the first, second, and fourth chapters, the first letter of every verse follows the order of the alphabet; but in the third the same initial letter is continued for three verses together. The style is lively, pathetic, and affecting. : crete and deposit the head of a Saracen lance; and the first gleam of the steel was saluted with a devout rapture. The holy lance was drawn from its recess, and exposed to the veneration of the crusaders, and we may well imagine that the desponding troops would again be inflamed with the enthusiasm of valor. Preparation was made for a conflict, and it may be supposed that the potent energy of this relic or trophy, aided by another miraculous delusion would ensure victory. LAMPBLACK. In Painting, a pigment formed of the soot arising from burning oil. In its origi-ly nal state, its extreme greasiness would prevent its drying; but this defect is remedied by burning it in a crucible. LAMPREY. A sort of fish which adheres firmly to rocks and other bodies by the mouth. It is in shape like an eel, and as slippery. Lampreys are esteemed as a delicacy, and are in season in the months of March, April, and May. In the season of danger and triumph, the revelation of Bartholemy of Marseilles was unanimousasserted; but as soon as the temporary service was accomplished, the personal dignity and liberal alms which the count of Tholouse derived from the custody of the holy lance, provoked the envy and awakened the reason of his rivals. Incredulity, with regard to the truth of the legend, succeeded suspicion and examination, and the author was obliged to submit his life and veracity to the judgment of God. A pile of dry fagots, four feet high and fourteen long, was erected in the midst of the camp; the flames burned fiercely to the height of thirty cubits, and a narrow path of twelve inches was left for the perilous trial. The unfortunate priest of Marseilles traversed the fire with dexterity and speed; but his thighs and belly were scorched by the intense heat; he expired the next day, protesting his truth and innocence. Such were the origin, influence, and termination of the legend of the holy lance. LANCET. A surgical instrument, sharp pointed, and two edged, chiefly used for opening veins in the operation of bleeding. LAND REMAINS. A term applied to remains of animals and vegetables, found every where on digging in the earth, mostly interchanged with strata of marine remains. They consist of bones of animals, or vegetables whose species chiefly are extinct, or whose genera now flourish in warmer climates, the bones being often of animals of enormous size, either because such were common, or because they have endured longer. Vegetables in particular, are often found imbedded in coals, and coal seams are in general considered as consolidations of ancient forests. In Iceland a forest was lately found with the trees erect, fifty or sixty feet below the surface of the earth, and prostrate forests have been found in Lancashire and Lincolnshire. LANDMARK. A mark to designate the boundary of land; any mark or fixed object; as a marked tree, a stone, a ditch, or a heap of stones, by which the limits of a farm, a town or other portion of territory may be known and preserved. LANDSCAPE. A portion of land or territory which the eye can comprehend in a single glance, including mountains, rivers, lakes, and whatever else the land contains. Also, a picture, exhibiting the form of a district of country, as far as the eye can reach, or a particular extent of land and the objects it contains, or its various scenery, is called a landscape. LANGUAGE. Properly signifies the expression or enunciation of human thoughts and sentiments, by means of the articulate sounds of the human voice. Man, of all animals, only is possessed of speech. Mere sound is, indeed, the sign of what is pleasurable or painful, and it is for that reason, common to most other animals; for, in this manner, do they signify their feelings to each other. But speech indicates what is expedient or hurtful, and, as a natural consequence, what is just or unjust. It is, therefore, given to man; for a sense of good and evil is peculiar to man alone. The most intelligent of the brute creation frequently astonish us by actions, which can proceed only from powers of intellect, similar to our own: the capacity of speech then, is the criterion of distinction between man and the brute creation. Reason, the capital faculty and characteristic of inan, would, without this extensive power of communication, have remained in inactivity, its energies unexcited, and its faculties torpid. The origin of written language is involved in great obscurity; nor has this obscurity been much lessened by the erudition that has been expended in the attempts of the learned to remove it. In the early ages of the world, there is every reason to suppose, that the difference of language in Europe, Asia, and Africa, was no more than a difference of dialects; and that the people of Greece, of Phoenicia, and of Egypt, mutually understood each other. The oriental origin of the Latin and Greek, is now generally acknowledged; and to these the Teutonic dialects have an affinity; the Arabic, the Chaldee, the Syraic, and the Ethiopic, still bear the most striking resemblance to the Hebrew: in the Welsh, are many words analogous to it: the Celtic, also, has derived much from this and other eastern languages. The Hebrew, then, if we judge from these remarkable facts, from the mode of its derivation from its radicals, or from the simplicity of its structure must, undoubtedly, be considered as the primitive or parent language. An eminent linguist of the present day thinks it very likely, that the original language was composed of monosyllables, that each had a distinct ideal meaning, and only one meaning; as different acceptations of the word would undoubtedly arise, either from compounding terms or when there were but few words in the language, using them by a different mode of pronunciation, to express a variety of things. Where this simple, monosyllabic language prevailed, (and it must have prevailed in the first ages of the world) men would necessarily have simple ideas, and a corresponding simplicity of manners. The Chinese language is exactly such as this; and the Hebrew, if stripped of its vowel points, and its prefixes, suffixes, and postifixes, separated from their combinations, so that they might stand by themselves, would nearly answer to this character, oven in its present state. LANTERNS, FEAST OF. In China, is a celebrated festival held from the thirteenth to the sixteenth day of the first month; so called from the immense number of lanterns hung out of the houses and streets. On this day are exposed lanterns of all prices, whereof some are said to cost two thousand crowns. They are adorned with gilding, sculpture, painting, japaning, &c., and their size is extravagant; some being from twenty-five to thirty feet diameter, representing halls and chambers. Two or three such machines together would make handsome houses; so that in China they are able to eat, lodge, receive visits, hold balls, and act plays in a lantern. To illuminate them, they light up in them an incredible number of torches or lamps, which at a distance have a beautiful effect. In these they exhibit various kinds of shows, to divert the people. Besides these enormous lanterns, there are multitudes of smaller ones, each about four feet high, and one and a half broad. LANTERN FLY. This very curious insect measures about three inches and a half, from the tip of the front to that of the tail; and about five inches and a half from wing's end to wing's end, when extended. The body is of a lengthened oval shape, roundish, and divided into several rings. The wings are very large, of a yellow color, elegantly varied with brown. The lower pair are decorated by a very large eye-shaped spot on the middle of each, the border of the spot being red, and the centre half red and white. The head or lantern is a pale yellow with red stripes. This beautiful insect is a native of Surinam, and during the night sheds so strong a phosphoric splendor from its head or lantern, that it may be employed for a candle or torch. It is said that three or four of them tied to the top of a stick are frequently used by travellers for that purpose. A single one gives light enough to enable a person to read. LAPIDARY. Is chiefly used for an artificer, who cuts precious stones. Dealers in precious stones are rather styled jewellers. The art of cutting these is of great antiquity. Various machines are employed in cutting precious stones, according to their quality. The diamond, which is extremely hard, is cut on a wheel of soft steel, turned by a mill, with diamond dust, tempered with olive oil, which also serves to polish it. The oriental ruby, sapphire, and topaz, are cut on a copper wheel, with diamond dust tempered with olive oil, and are polished on another copper wheel with tripoli and water. Hyacinths, emeralds, amethysts, garnets, agates, and other stones, not of inferior hardness, are cut on a leaden wheel with smalt and water, and polished on a tin wheel with tripoli. The turquois, girasol, and opal, are cut and polished on a wooden wheel with tripoli. LAPIS LAZULI. In Painting, a stone of an azure or blue color, of which the paint called ultramarine is made. It is a copper ore, very compact and hard, and is found in lumps of a beautiful blue color, richly variegated with clouds of white and veins of shining gold color. LAPSE. In Law, an omission on the part of the patron to present to a benefice within six months after it is vacant, upon which default the ordinary has a right to collate to the said benefice. LAQUERING. The laying on metals colored or transparent varnishes, to produce the appearance of a different color in the metal, or to preserve it from rust. Thus laquered brass appears gilt, and tin is made yellow. Seed lac is the chief composition for laquers, but turpentine makes a cheaper laquer. LARBOARD. A sea term for the left hand side of a ship, when looking towards the stem or head. LARCENY. The felonious and fraudulent taking away the personal goods of another, which in England, is petty larceny if the thing be of the value of twelve pence or under, and grand larceny if above that value. LARCH. In Natural History, a species of pine, not evergreen. It is indigenous on the Alps and Apennines; and a variety is found in America. Ships have been built of the wood of this tree, which is found to be very durable. Venice turpentine is produced from the larch. LARKSPUR. A plant cultivated in gardens, the flower of which consists of many dissimilar petals or leaves, some of which end in a tail or spur. LARVA. In Natural History, the larva state of insects, in general, denotes caterpillars of a!! kinds. The caterpillar state is that through which every butterfly must pass before it arrives at its perfection and beauty. The change from caterpillar to butterfly was long esteemed a sort of metamorphosis, or real change of one animal into another; but this is by no means the case. The egg of a butterfly produces a butterfly, with all the lineaments of its parent; only these are not disclosed at first, but for the greater part of the animal's life they are covered with a sort of case or muscular coat, in which are legs for walking these only suit it in this state, but its mouth takes in nourishment, which is conveyed to the included auimal; and after a proper time this covering is thrown off, and the butterfly, which all the while might be discovered in it by an accurate observer with the help of a microscope, appears in its proper form. The care of all the butterfly tribe to lodge their eggs in safety is surprising. Those whose eggs are to be hatched in a few weeks, and who are to live in the caterpillar state during part of the remaining summer, always lay them on the leaves of such plants as will afford a proper nourishment; but, on the contrary, those whose eggs are to remain unhatched till the following spring, always lay them on the branches of trees and shrubs, and usually are careful to select such places as are least exposed to the rigour of the ensuing season, and frequently cover them from it in an artful manner. Some make a general coat of a hairy matter over them, taking the hairs from their own bodies for that purpose; others hide themselves in hollow places in trees, and in other sheltered cells, and there live in a kind of torpid state during the whole winter, that they may deposit their eggs in the succeeding spring at a time when there will be no severities of weather for them to combat. The day butterflies only do this, and of these but a very few species: but the night ones, or phalenæ, all, without exception, lay their eggs as soon as they have been in copulation with the male, and die immediately afterwards. Nothing is more surprising in insects than their industry; and in this the caterpillars yield to no kind, not to mention their silk, the spinning of which is one great proof of it. The sheaths and cases which some of these insects build for passing their transformations under, are by some made with their own hair, mixed with pieces of bark, leaves, and other parts of trees, with paper, and other materials; and the structure of these is well worthy our attention. Yet there are others whose workmanship in this article, far exceeds these. There is one which builds in wood, and is able to give its case a hardness greater than that of the wood itself in its natural state. This is the strange horned caterpillar of the willow, which is one of those that eat their exuviæ. This creature has extremely sharp teeth, and with these it cuts the wood into a number of small fragments; these fragments it afterwards unites together into a case, of what shape it pleases, by means of a peculiar silk, which is no other than a tough and viscous juice, which hardens as it dries, and is a strong and firm ce ment. The solidity of the case being thus provided for, we are to consider, that the caterpillar inclosed in it is to become a butterfly; and the wonder is, in what manner a creature of this helpless kind, which has neither legs to dig, nor teeth to gnaw with, is to make its way out of so firm and strong a lodgement as this in which it is hatched. The butterfly, as soon as hatched, discharges a liquor which softens the viscous matter that holds the case together; and so its several fragments falling to pieces, the way out lies open. Reaumur judged, from the effects, that this liquor must be of a singular nature, and very different from the generality of animal fluids; and in dissecting this creature in the caterpillar state, there will always be found near the mouth, and under the œsophagus, a bladder of the size of a small pea, full of a limpid liquor, of a very quick and penetrating smell, and which, upon trial, proves to be a very powerful acid; and among other properties, which it has in common with other acids, it sensibly softens the glue of the case, on a common application. It is evident that this liquor, besides its use to the caterpillar, remains with it in the chrysalis state, and is what gives it a power of dissolving the structure of the case, and making its way through in a proper manner at the necessary time. of wood, ivory, metals, and other materials. The invention of the lathe is very ancient. Diodorus Siculus says, the first who used it was a grandson of Dædalus, named Talus. Pliny ascribes it to Theodore of Samos; and mentions one Thericles, who rendered himself very famous by his dexterity in managing the lathe. With this instrument the ancients turned all kinds of vases, many of which they enriched with figures and ornaments in basso relievo. LATIN. The language spoken by the ancient Romans, or the inhabitants of Latium, from which it derives its name. LATITUDE. In Geography, is the distance of any place from the equator, measured in degrees, minutes, and seconds, upon the meridian of that place; and is either north or south, according as the place is situated either on the north or south side of the equator. LAVA. A stream of melted minerals, which runs out of the mouths, or bursts through the sides, of burning mountains, during the time of an eruption. LAUDANUM. This resinous juice exudes upon the leaves of the Cistus ladanum of Linnæus, in Candia, where the inhabitants collect it by lightly rubbing the leaves with leather, and afterwards scraping off and forming it into irregular masses, for exportation. Three sorts of laudanum have been described by authors; but only two are to be met with in the shops. The best, which is very Boerhaave adopted the opinion that there are rare, is in dark colored masses, of the consistence no true acids in animals, except in the stomach or of a soft plaster, growing still softer on being intestines; but this familiar instance proves the handled. The other is in long rolls, coiled up, contrary. Another very curious and mysterious much harder than the preceding, and not so dark. artifice is that by which some species of caterpil- The first has commonly a small, and the last a large lars, when the time of their changing into the admixture of fine sand, without which they canchrysalis state is coming on, make themselves not be collected pure, independently of designed lodgements in the leaves of the trees, by rolling abuses; the dust blown on the plant by winds them up in such a manner as to make themselves from the loose sands among which it grows, being a sort of hollow cylindric case, proportioned to the retained by the tenacious juice. The soft kind thickness of their body, well defended against the has an agreeable smell, and a lightly pungent, bit- · injuries of the air, and carefully secured for their terish taste: the hard is much weaker. Laudanum state of tranquillity. Besides these caterpillars, was formerly much employed internally, as a pecwhich in this manner roll up the leaves of plants, toral and astringent, in catarrhal affections, dysenthere are other species which only bend them teries, and several other diseases. At present, once, and others, which by means of thin threads, however, it is wholly confined to external use, and connect many leaves together to make them a case. is an ingredient in the stomachic plaster, emplasAll this is a very surprising work, but much infe-trum ladani of the London Pharmacopoeia. rior to this method of rolling. LATE WAKE.. A ceremony used at funerals in some parts of the Highlands of Scotland. The evening after the death of any person the relations and friends of the deceased meet at the house, attended by a bagpipe or fiddle; the nearest of kin, be it wife, son, or daughter, opens a melancholy ball, dancing, and greeting (i. e. crying violently) at the same time, and this continues till daylight; but with gambols and frolics among the younger part of the company. If the corpse remains unburied for two nights, the same rites are renewed. LATHE. A very useful engine for the turning LAUGHTER. Is an affection peculiar to mankind. In laughter the eyebrows are raised about the middle, and drawn down next the nose; the eyes are almost shut; the mouth opens and shows the teeth; the corners of the mouth being drawn back and raised up; the cheeks seem puffed up, and almost hide the eyes; the face is usually red; the nostrils are open; and the eyes wet. Authors attribute laughter to the fifth pair of nerves, which sending branches to the eye, ear, lips, tongue, palate and muscles of the cheek, parts of the mouth, præcordia, &c., there hence arises a sympathy, or consent, between all these parts; so that when one of them is acted upon the others are proportionally affected. Hence a thing seen or smelled affects the glands, and parts of the mouth; and things seen or heard, that is shameful, affects the cheeks with blushes: on the contrary, if it please and tickle the fancy, it affects the præcordia, and muscles of the mouth and face with laughter ; if it cause sadness and melancholy, it likewise affects the præcordia, and demonstrates itself by causing the glands of the eyes to emit tears. The affection of the mind by which laughter is produced is seemingly so very different from the other passions with which we are endowed, that it has engaged the attention of very eminent persons. LAUNCH. In Ship Building, is the slip or descent whereon the ship is built, also the whole machinery used in launching. To facilitate the operation of launching, the ship, when she is first built, is supported by strong platforms, laid with a gradual inclination to the water, on the opposite sides of her keel, to which they are parallel. Upon the surface of this declivity are placed two corresponding ranges of planks, which compose the base of a frame, called the cradle, whose upper part envelops the ship's bottom, to which it is securely attached. Thus, the lower surface of the cradle, conforming exactly to that of the frame below, lies flat upon it lengthways, under the opposite sides of the ship's bottom; and as the former is intended to slide downwards upon the latter, carrying the ship along with it, the planes or faces of both are well daubed with soap and tallow. The necessary preparations for the launch being made, all the blocks and wedges by which the ship was formerly supported, are driven out from under her keel, till the whole weight gradually subsides upon the platforms, which are accordingly called the ways. The shores and stanchions, by which she is retained upon the stocks till the time of launching, are at length cut away, and the screws applied to move her, if necessary. The motion usually begins at the instant when the shores are cut, and the ship slides downward along the ways, which are generally prolonged under the surface of the water to a sufficient depth, to float her as soon as she arrives at the farthest end thereof. LAUREL MAGNOLIA. A large and beautiful tree, that grows on the banks of the Mississippi, and of the river St. Juan. Their usual height is about one hundred feet, and some greatly exceed it. The trunk is perfectly erect, rising in the form of a beautiful column, and supporting a head like an obtuse cone. The flowers of this tree are the largest and most complete of any yet known: when fully expanded, they are of six, eight, and nine inches diameter. They are on the extremities of the subdivisions of the branches: they are perfectly white, and expanded like a full blown rose. In the autumn, multitudes of red berries hang down from the branches of these trees, suspended by white silky threads, from four to nine inches in length. The berries have an agreeable spicy scent, and an aromatic bitter taste. The wood when seasoned is of a straw color, and harder and firmer than that of the poplar. The | grape vines which climb these trees, are frequently nine, ten, and twelve inches in diameter: they twine round the trunks of the trees, climb to their very tops, and then spread along their limbs, from tree to tree, throughout the forest. LAVENDER. A plant with a shrubby stem, much branched with numerous hoary leaves. The flowers are produced in terminating spikes from the young shoots on long peduncles. The leaves, stalk, and flower yield a fragrant perfume, and from the latter are prepared an essential oil, a simple spirit, and a compound tincture. LAUNCE FISH, or SAND LAUNCE. A sea fish which buries itself on the recess of the tide a foot deep in the sand. It is generally used for baits. LAUREL. An evergreen tree, having broad, thick, shining leaves. The flower consists of five petals or leaves, which expand in the form of a rose. LAW. In its most extensive sense, the rule of conduct prescribed by the supreme power of a state. The laws of England comprehend the Common Law and the Statute Law, together with certain portions of the Civil Law and the Canon Law. LAYERS, CORTICAL. If a stem of the currant or a branch of the lime tree be divided transversely, we find within the cellular integument a series of concentric or cortical layers, corresponding in number to the age of the stem or branch we examine. In some instances they constitute the entire bark, and in all they are its most essential portion. The exterior and old layers are coarse and loose in their texture, exhibiting individually a conspicuous and indurated, but very irregular network, composed of bundles of longitudinal fibres, not ascending the stem directly but winding more or less around the axis of the plant. 'As the layers recede from the circumference, the network which they form is finer though still very irregular, and their texture more compact. But although irregular, the meshes of the different layers often correspond, forming an aperture that extends as far as the meshes coincide, but dimin¬ ishing in size as it penetrates towards the centre, In the trunks of aged trees, such as the oak and elm, the apertures thus formed, widen into large gaps and chinks, exhibiting still in their distribution the rough traces of the network of the original layer, now laid bare by the decay of the epidermis and cellular integument.' But in the bark of young trees and young branches, these apertures are occupied by a cellular substance, more or less indurated, which pervades the fibres of the network and binds them together, but these fibres being less perishable than the intervening substance, remain entire long after it has wasted away. The inner layer, that which lies contiguous to the wood is termed liber, from its having been employed in ancient manuscripts. It is more del |