their composition. The degrees of heat necessary for fermentation vary with the different kinds of it; but below a certain temperature, the process does not commence under any form, or is effectually checked if it has already begun. Boerhaave imagined that the three kinds of fermentation which we have enumerated, always succeeded each other in the same invariable order; but though this is often the case, it by no means holds universally. Many substances undergo the acetous, without having previously passed through the vinous fermentation; and a still greater number run into putrefaction that never suffer any change analogous to the vinous or acetous processes.

Though sugar, in some modified form, appears to be the only substance capable of the vinous fermentation, certain other substances are necessary, both for the commencement and continuation of the process. A suitable quantity of water must be added to the saccharine matter: if the quantity, however, be in excess, the liquor is apt to pass into the acetous fermentation; and if it be too little, the process goes on difficultly and slowly. When the liquor to be fermented consists of a solution of pure sugar, a quantity of yeast is also necessary to excite the fermentation, and make it pass into the vinous state. Nor is the influence of temperature less essential: below fifty degrees of Fahrenheit's scale the vinous fermentation proceeds very slowly; and at the freezing point it is completely checked. Above seventy degrees the process advances too rapidly, and unless it be duly moderated, is apt to pass into the acetous stage.

that, if the air be excluded, while the gas disengaged by the fermentation is permitted to make its escape, the vinous product is stronger than when the process is carried on in open vessels. In that case, however, as Chaptal remarks, the fermentation advances more slowly.

The products to which the vinous fermentation gives birth, resemble one another by possessing an intoxicating quality, and yielding, by distillation, a portion of alcohol; but they differ considerably in their strength, odor and flavor. Their differences, in these respects, are owing, partly to the essential oils, and other proximate principles which they derive from the substances submitted to the vinous process, and partly to the manner of conducting the fermentation. They may be considered as of two general descriptions: Wines, properly so called, and the various kinds of ale or beer.

Wines are obtained by subjecting to fermentation the sweet juices of fruits, particularly that of the grape. The products are extremely diversified, and vary in flavor and appearance with the climate, soil, and the nature and culture of the vine, as well as with the manner of carrying on the fermentative process. Hence wines are sweetish, and weaker or stronger, according as the saccharine matter of the grape is more or less abundant, and the fermentation more or less complete; and they are sharp and sparkling, when part of the carbonic acid, which is generated during the process, is retained. Astringent wines derive their peculiar flavor from the astringent principle contained in the grape from which they are formed. The color is The nature and action of yeast have been the communicated by the external pellicle of the fruit, subject of chemical investigation. Lavoisier ascer- and might easily be prevented, if necessary, by tained, that, besides the other elements which are removing the husks, before fermentation. Wines usually found in vegetables, it contained a quantity of every description contain a certain portion of of nitrogen in its composition, and so far evinced a supertartrate of potash, which gradually separates connexion with animalized matter. The research-from them, when they are left undisturbed; and to es of Fabroni, Thenard, and Seguin, have demon- this is owing, in a great degree, the improvement strated that the fermenting property of yeast is of wines by age. owing to the presence of a substance resembling gluten or albumen, which is derived from certain vegetable infusions, capable of spontaneous fermentation.

When circumstances are sufficiently favorable for the vinous fermentation, the liquor, in passing into it, becomes somewhat turbid, and manifests a kind of commotion throughout its whole mass. Air bubbles begin to be separated, and being entangled by the flocculent part of the liquid, occasion a frothy appearance on the surface. In the meantime, the temperature gradually increases, and sometimes requires to be checked. The gas which is disengaged is found to consist chiefly of carbonic acid, mixed occasionally with a portion of hydrogen. At length, the extrication of air, and the intestine commotion with which it is accompanied, gradually diminish, and the process terminates by the liquor recovering its transparency. If the fermented substance be now examined, it is found to have exchanged its sweet taste for one of considerable pungency, and to have acquired the property of acting as a powerful stimulant on the animal system. The vinous fermentation depending in a great measure upon the separation of carbon, the process may be conducted without the aid of atmospheric air; and, indeed, it has been found by experiment,

France produces a great variety of excellent wines. For daily use, Fourcroy prefers those of Burgundy, because all their principles are duly combined, and none of them predominates, so as to communicate a peculiarity of flavor. The wines of Orleans, after being matured by age, resemble those of Burgundy. The red wines of Champagne are highly prized for their excellence and delicacy; though, in some cases, they possess a pungent and sourish taste, from being bottled before the carbonic acid is sufficiently disengaged by fermentation. The wines of Languedoc and Guienne are greatly esteemed, on account of their tonic qualities, particularly when they are mellowed by age. Those of Anjou are strong, spirituous, and intoxicating.

The Rhenish and Moselle wines have a cool, sharp taste, and readily intoxicate. Some Italian wines, such as those of Orviette, Vicenza, and Lacryma Christi, are well fermented and resemble the French wines. Those of Spain are in general boiled, sweet, and being but partially fermented, cannot be reckoned wholesome. The wines of Rota and Alicant must, however, be excepted, and are justly considered as useful stomachics. The wines of Portugal have been long in great demand in this country; and, indeed, no wine can be accounted superior to good old port.

The wines formed from other fruits, as currants, | other products which are more peculiar to them, gooseberries, apples, pears, &c. are greatly inferior particularly combinations of sulphur and phosphoto those obtained from the grape. The juices of rus; and to these substances must be ascribed, the these fruits abound too much with acid, and too fetid odor and noxious properties of the gases, little with saccharine matter, to afford of themselves which are extricated from them during putreeven tolerable wines; and they must, therefore, be faction. improved by the addition of sugar, before fermentation. The wines from the juices of the apple and pear, denominated cider and perry, contain a large portion of the acids of these fruits, and a considerable quantity of carbonic acid: to the presence of the latter is owing their sharpness and sparkling property. Cherries furnish a very pleas-covered with melted suct, may be preserved in that ant wine; apricots, peaches, and prunes, afford wines of an indifferent quality.

FETICHE. A remarkable kind of snake, which |tions. Thus a feudal kingdom conveys rather the is made an object of religious worship, in Whydah, idea of a military than a civil establishment. The a kingdom of Africa. This snake has a large, victorious army, taking their posts in different disround, beautiful head, a short, pointed tongue, re-tricts of a country, continued to be arranged under sembling a dart, and a sharp, short tail. It is slow its proper officers, and to be subject to martial law. and solemn in its pace, except when it seizes on its The principle of policy upon which this singular prey, when it is quick and rapid. It is tame and establishment was founded, was self-defence. The familiar; the natives and Europeans handling and new settlers in a country wished to protect themplaying with them, without dread or apprehension selves, not only against the attacks of the inhabiof danger. When the English first settled in tants, whom they had expelled from their possesWhydah, a sailor just arrived, found one of these sions, but against the more formidable inroads of snakes in the magazine belonging to the factory, fresh invaders. But, unfortunately for the happiand killing it threw it on the bank. The negroes, ness of mankind, and the tranquillity of society, it filled with rage and terror at the murder of one of was replete with many evils. The powerful vastheir gods, assembled all the inhabitants of the sals of the crown soon acquired that land as unprovince, and massacred the factors to a man; alienable property, which was originally a grant consuming their bodies and goods in the fire they during pleasure, and appropriated to themselves had set to their warehouse. titles of honor, as well as places of trust. In process of time, they obtained the power of sovereign jurisdiction, both civil and criminal, within their own domains; and they exercised the privilege of coining money, and of carrying on wars against their own private enemies.

FEUD. In England, the right which the vassal or tenant had in lands and other immovable things of his lord's, to use the same and take the profits thereof, rendering unto his lord such duties and services as belonged to military tenure, the property Barons possessed of such enormous power, disof the soil, &c. always remaining to the lord. The dained to consider themselves as subjects; and the laws respecting these feuds, which are compre-consequence was, that a kingdom was broken into hended under the name of the Feudal System, as many separate principalities, as it contained regulated all the principles of landed property in powerful nobles. Innumerable causes of jealousy England until the reign of Charles II.; and vesti- and discord subsisted between them, and gave rise ges of this system are still to be seen in the modern to constant wars. Every country in Europe, either tenures, particularly in copyholds. wasted or kept in continual alarm during these feuds, was filled with castles and places of strength erected for the security of the despotic chieftain, not against foreign invasion, but domestic hostilities. In the reign of Stephen of England, when the feudal system was in its height, not less than a thousand castles, with their dependent territories, are said to have covered the southern part of the island of Great Britain. Among fierce and haughty

trates commanded no degree of respect; and the right of retaliation and revenge was considered as an inherent privilege of their order.

FEUDAL SYSTEM. The inhabitants of the north of Europe and Asia, who issued in great multitudes from their native forests, during the fourth and fifth centuries of the christian era, and who overturned the Roman empire, introduced a new species of government into the conquered countries, which is known by the name of the Feudal System. It is very remarkable, that al-chieftains, the laws enacted by princes and magisthough the barbarians who framed it, settled in their newly acquired territories at various times, were commanded by different leaders, and spoke different languages; yet the system was established, with little variation, in every country in Europe. This great uniformity is peculiarly striking, and has furnished some writers with an argument, that all these people sprung originally from the same stock. But the fact may perhaps with more probability be attributed to the similar state of their manners, and the similar situation in which they all found themselves, on taking possession of their new domain.

In fine, the estate of every baron was an independent territory; his castle was a strong and well garrisoned fortress, and he always considered himself as living in a state of war. When provoked by injury, he met his adversary at the head of his vassals in hostile array, and trusted to his sword for the decision of the contest. Every man was the avenger of his own wrongs, and sought the redress of his grievances in single combat, the regulation The plan of the feudal constitution was this:- and ceremonies of which were formed into a sysEvery freeman, or soldier, for the terms were at tem of jurisprudence. The common people, the that period synonymous, upon receiving an allot- most numerous and most useful part of the comment of conquered lands, bound himself to appear munity, were reduced to the miseries of slavery. in arms against the common enemy, whenever he The peasant was considered as the mere produce should be called upon by his commander. This of the soil, and was transferred from one lord to military service was the condition upon which another, with the utensils and cattle of his farm. every one received, and the tenure by which he The king, stripped of almost every prerogative, continued to possess, his lands; and this obligation and possessing little more than the empty title of was esteemed both easy and honorable. The same sovereign, had neither power to protect the innoservice which a soldier owed to his officer, was cent, nor to punish the guilty. Indeed, a general due from an officer to his king. The king obliged anarchy, destructive of all the comforts which men those among whom he distributed the conquered expect to derive from a state of society, prevailed. lands, to repair to his standard, with a number of To complete and confirm these evils, the progress followers, in proportion to the extent of their res-of time gradually fixed and rendered venerable an pective estates, and to assist him in all his expedi- establishment, which originated in violence, and

was continued with every species of despotism and FEVER. A disease, characterized by an accelinjustice; a system which was as hostile to the in-erated pulse, with increase of heat, impaired functellectual as to the moral improvement of the mind; tions, diminished strength, and often with preterwhich banished science and the arts, sunk mankind natural thirst. Fevers are often or generally into gross ignorance, obscured the sacred light of preceded by chills or rigors, called the cold stage Christianity in the thickest darkness of superstition, of the disease. Fevers are of various kinds; but and was favorable only to the growth of those the principal division of fevers is into remitting stern virtues, which are characteristic of uncivilized fevers, which subside or abate at intervals; and nations. The rigor of tyranny hardened the minds continued or continual fevers, which neither remit of the nobles, the yoke of vassalage debased the nor intermit. spirit of the people, the generous sentiments inspired by a sense of equality were extinguished, and there was no check to ferocity and violence. Accordingly a greater number of those atrocious actions, which fill the mind with astonishment and horror occur in the history of the feudal times, than in that of any period of the same extent in the annals of Europe.

both in vegetables and animals. It is a soft solid, FIBRIN. A peculiar organic compound, found of a greasy appearance, insoluble in water, which softens in the air, becoming viscid, brown, and semi-transparent. On hot coals it melts, throws out greasy drops, crackles, and evolves the smoke and odor of roasting meat. It is procured, in its Such was the deplorable state of society from most characteristic state, from animal matter. It the seventh to the eleventh century. From that exists in chyle; it enters into the composition of era may be dated the return of government, laws, flesh; and hence it must be regarded as the most blood; and it forms the chief part of muscular and manners, in a contrary direction. In succeed- abundant constituent of the soft solids of animals. ing times, a variety of causes began to operate, which checked the licentiousness of the barons, FIBULA. In Antiquity, was a sort of button, softened the ferocity of their manners, and finally buckle, or clasp, used by the Greeks and Romans, put a period to their domination. The establish- for keeping close or tying up some part of their ment of standing armies in the fifteenth century, clothes. They were of various forms, and often gave more effectual authority to kings; and from adorned with precious stones. Men and women that time they no longer regarded the nobles as wore them in their hair and at their shoes. Fibulæ their equals, or found it necessary to have recourse are often found in the tombs of the ancient Romans, to timid counsels, or feeble efforts, to control their Gauls, Franks, and the ancient Britons. Many power. They began, not only to wield the sceptre, antique fibula of bronze are to be found in various but to brandish the sword; and either checked the cabinets and collections of antiquities, among other designs of their barons by intimidation, or punished articles of the toilet or of personal decoration. their rebellion by force.

Charles VII. of France, urged by his desire of FICA RELIGIOSA, the Banian Tree, or Indian expelling the English from France in the year Fig. Is a native of several parts of the East 1445, was the first who adopted this measure; but Indies. It has a woody stem, branching to a great as it was so repugnant to the genius of the feudal height and vast extent, with heart-shaped entire system, and required the greatest boldness to carry leaves ending in acute points. Of this tree Milton it into execution, he retained a large body of forces has given a description equally beautiful and just, in his service, and appointed funds for their regular in his Paradise Lost, b. ix. The Banian tree is payment. The principal nobility soon resorted to perhaps the most beautiful of nature's productions his standard, and looked up to him as the judge in that genial climate, where she sports with the and the rewarder of merit. The feudal militia, greatest profusion and variety. Some of these composed of men of rank and military talents, trees are of amazing size and great extent; as they who were only occasionally called out, were in are continually increasing, and seem to be exempttime regarded with contempt, by soldiers accus-ed from decay. Every branch from the main body tomed to the operations of regular service.

throws out its own roots; at first, in small tender The above example of breaking the independent fibres, several yards from the ground: these conpower of the barons, was followed by the politic tinually grow thicker until they reach the surface; Henry VII. of England. He undermined that and there striking in, they increase to large trunks, edifice, which it was not prudent to attack with and become parent trees, shooting out new branchopen force. By judicious laws he permitted his es from the top: these in time suspend their roots, nobles to break the entail upon their estates, and to which swelling into trunks, produce other branchexpose them to sale. He prohibited them from es; thus continuing in a state of progression as keeping numerous bands of retainers, which had long as the earth, the first parent of them all, conrendered them formidable to his predecessors. By tributes her sustenance. The Hindoos are pecuencouraging agriculture and commerce, and all the liarly fond of the Banian tree; they look upon it arts of peace during a long reign, and by enforcing as an emblem of the deity, from its long duration, a vigorous and impartial execution of the laws, he its outstretching arms, and overshadowing benefinot only removed many immediate evils resulting cence. Near these trees the most esteemed pagodas from the feudal system, but provided against their are generally erected; under their shade the Brahfuture return. The influence of his salutary mins spend their lives in religious solitude; and the plans was gradually felt, and they contributed natives of all casts and tribes are fond of recreating more and more, in process of time, to the good in the cool recesses, beautiful walks, and lovely order, prosperity, and general welfare of his vistas of this umbrageous canopy, impervious to subjects. the hottest beams of a tropical sun.

Cubbeer Burr is famed throughout Hindostan [ for its great extent and surprising beauty: armies have encamped around it; and, at stated seasons, solemn jatarras, or Hindoo festivals, are held here, to which thousands of votaries repair from various parts. It is said that seven thousand persons find ample room to repose under its shade. The English gentlemen, on their hunting and shooting parties, used to form extensive encampments, and spend weeks together under this delightful pavilion, which is generally filled with green wood pigeons, doves, peacocks, and a variety of feathered songsters; crowded with families of monkeys performing their antic tricks; and shaded by bats of a large size. This tree not only affords shelter, but sustenance to all its inhabitants, being covered amidst its bright foliage with small figs of a rich scarlet color.

F. Sycamorus, the sycamore tree, is very common in Lower Egypt. It buds in the end of March, and the fruit ripens in the beginning of June. It is cut by the inhabitants at the time it buds; for without this precaution they say it would not bear fruit. The wood of the sycamore tree is not subject to rot; and has therefore been used for making coffins, in which embalmed bodies were put. Hasselguist affirms, that he saw in Egypt coffins made of this kind of wood, which had been preserved sound for two thousand years.

Figs are a considerable article in the Materia Medica, chiefly employed in emollient cataplasms and pectoral decoctions. The best are those which come from Turkey. Many are also brought from the south of France, where they prepare them in the following manner:-The fruit is first dipped in scalding hot lie made of the ashes of the fig tree, and then dried in the sun. Hence these figs stick to the hands, and scour them like lixivial salts: and for the same reason they excite to stool, without griping. They are moderately nutrimental, grateful to the stomach, and easier to digest than any other of the sweet fruits. They have been said to produce lice, when eaten as a common food, but this is entirely without foundation.

FICUS, or FIG. A tree, with an upright stem branching fifteen or twenty feet high, with large palmated or hand-shaped leaves. It flourishes in warm climates, and bears a fruit, which, when dried, is remarkable for its luscious sweetness.

FILBERT. The fruit of the Corylus or hazel, an egg-shaped nut, containing a kernel, that has a mild, farinaceous, oily taste, which is agreeable to the palate. The oil is said to be little inferior to the oil of almonds.

FILE. Among Mechanics, a tool of steel, with which iron or any other metal is polished. Files are cut in little furrows in a certain direction, and of a certain depth, according to the grain or touch required. Files are either cut by the hand with a chisel and mallet, or by means of a machine; but the latter mode is not so good.

FILIGRANE, FILIGREE, or FILLAGREE WORK. From Latin filum, or thread, and granum, or grain, a kind of enrichment on gold or silver, wrought delicately, in manner of small threads or grains, or both intermixed. It was formerly much more employed than at present, in the manufacture of small articles, which served more for show than for use; such as vases, needle-cases, caskets to hold jewels, small boxes, particularly shrines, decorations for the images of saints, and other church furniture. This art, however, is of great antiquity, and seems to have been brought into Europe from the East. Among church furniture we meet with filigree work of the middle ages. The Turks, Armenians, and Indians make at present some masterpieces of this sort, and with tools that are exceedingly coarse and imperfect.

There is no manufacture in any part of the world that has been more admired and celebrated, than the fine gold and silver filagree of Sumatra. The surprising delicacy of this work is the more extraordinary as the tools are rudely and inartificially formed by the pandi, or goldsmith, from any old iron he can pick up. When you engage one of them to execute a piece of work, his first request is usually for a piece of iron hoop, to make his wire-drawing instrument; an old hammer-head, stuck in a block, serves for an anvil, and a pair of compasses is often composed of two old nails tied together at one end. The gold is melted in a piece of prcoo, or earthen rice pot, or sometimes in a crucible of their own make, of ordinary clay. In general they use no bellows, but blow the fire with their mouths, through a joint of bamboo; and, if the quantity of metal to be melted is considerable, three or four persons sit round their furnace, which is an old broken quallee or iron pot, and blow toFILAMENTS. Vegetable filaments form a sub-gether. At Padomg alone, where the manufacture stance of great use in the arts and manufactures, is more considerable, they have adopted the Chifurnishing thread, cloth, cordage, &c. For these nese bellows. Their method of drawing the wire purposes the filamentous parts of hemp and flax differs little from that used by Europeans. When are employed among us. Different vegetables have drawn to a sufficient fineness, they flatten it by been employed in different countries for the same beating it on their anvil; and, when flattened, they uses. In some parts of Sweden a strong cloth is give it a twist like that in the whalebone handle of said to have been prepared from the stalks of hops. a punch-ladle, by rubbing it on a block of wood These have been tried here, but without success. with a flat stick. After twisting they again beat it Vegetable filaments, and the thread or cloth on the anvil, and, by these means, it becomes flat prepared from them, differ remarkably from wire with indented edges. With a pair of nippers wool, hair, silk, and other animal productions, they fold down the edge of the wire, and thus form particularly in their disposition to imbibe col- a leaf, or element of a flower in their work, which oring matters; sundry liquors, which give a is cut off. The end is again folded and cut off, till beautiful and durable dye to those of the ani- they have got a sufficient number of leaves, which mal, giving no stain at all to those of the vegetable are laid on singly. kingdom.

Patterns of the flowers or foliage, in which