ing subject to decay, they have not reached our time as the more durable granites have done, embellished with hieroglyphics cut in them in a manner which might be printed on paper.

antiquity, either in sculpture, painting, or engraving, prior to those of Etruscan original. Some of those which are preserved in the British Museum are exceedingly rude, and evidently executed with the graver only upon a flat surface, and if filled with ink and run through a printing press, provided the plate would endure the operation, might produce a fair and perfect impression.

Arguing from these premises, it may be inferred, that the ancients understood the art of engraving in metal, though without conceiving that the copies of their productions might be multiplied by means of ink on soft white cloth, or similar materials. The art of engraving on their shields was pracAlbert Durer, born in 1470, and who died at Nu- tised by the Saxons, in common with the other remberg 1528, is said to have been the first person northern tribes. Alfred the Great encouraged this on record claiming the name of an engraver in the among the other arts, and the works of the Saxon long list of celebrated artists; but certainly very artists, as their shrines and caskets, rose by his enexcellent engraved brass figures, the lines filled couragement and that of his successors, considerawith substances to show them more clearly, are bly in estimation, not only in England but on the now extant on tombs in some hundreds of churches continent. Strutt mentions a curious remnant of in England, the dates of many of which are prior antiquity in the Museum at Oxford, namely, a very to the time of his birth. This fact will serve to valuable jewel, made of gold, and richly adorned prove that the printing of engraved plates was dis- with a kind of work resembling filagree, in the covered between 1470 and 1528; indeed the per-midst of which is seen the half figure of a man, fection that engraving had reached in the latter supposed to be Saint Cuthbert. The back of this century, plainly demonstrates that the use of the jewel, which was engraved by command of Alfred, graver was by no means a modern discovery. The is ornamented with foliage very skilfully executed. encouragement of the fine arts has ever been a Saint Dunstan, the celebrated archbishop of Candistinguishing trait of the inhabitants of the conti-terbury, who died A. D. 988, is also noted for his nent of Europe; it is not wonderful, therefore, that skill in the arts. Osborn, his biographer, enumeengraving closely followed the footsteps of the pa- rates among his other endowments that he could rent arts, and flourished there in greater perfection scalpello imprimere ex auro, argento, ære, et ferro.' than in England, where they have been in a state of miserable depression till within the last century, when literature was supposed to receive some aid from the graver, the booksellers taking the hint, have encouraged the predilection of the public, which has operated as a stimulus to the artist, and the consequence is, that the graphic embellishments of British topographical and poetical works are equal, if not superior, to any in Europe.

After the Conquest, it appears that engraving, which had hitherto been mostly followed in conjunction with the sister arts of carving and chasing, was now followed as a distinct art, and carried to a higher state of perfection, as may be learned from the brass plates so frequently to be met with in the English churches or on the tombstones in the fourteenth and following centuries. These are usually ornamented with the effigies of the person to whose memory they are dedicated, and are evidently executed by the graver only; the outlines being first made, then the shadows are expressed by strokes strengthened in proportion as they required more force, and occasionally crossed with other strokes a second or third time, precisely in the same manner as copperplate is at present engraved for printing. Thus we see that the art of engraving was for a long time practised, before it was made to answer the noble purpose, of perpetuating the labors of the painter.

ENGRAVING, HISTORY OF. Engraving, as far as regards the representation of figures or characters on metal, stone, or wood, was one of the first arts on which human ingenuity was exercised. Moses speaks of the art of engraving as no new invention. The tables which God delivered to Moses are said to be the work of God, and the writing was the writing of God engraved upon the tables. The first engravings of human workmanship mentioned in the scriptures, were executed by Aholiab and Bezaleel, for the decoration of the ta- That branch of the art of engraving which conbernacle and the ornaments for the dress of Aaron. sists in taking impressions on paper was, according It is also said that the tables of Seth contained the to Giorgio Vasari, first practised by the Italians. astronomical discoveries of that patriarch and his and took its rise from an accident. One Maso sons. In process of time we find that the clasps, Finiguerra, an ingenious goldsmith and sculptor of buckles, rings, and other ornamental parts of dress, Florence in the fifteenth century, used to design as also the cups and other household furniture, to- and emboss figures on gold and other metals, and gether with the arms of military chieftains, were before he inlaid them, he used to fill the engraving probably enriched with the first specimens of en- with earth, and cast melted sulphur on it, which graving. The shields of the Carians, as described gave it a sort of olive color, after which, pressing a by Herodotus, were ornamented with rude por- piece of damp paper on it with a smooth wooden traitures, as were also those of the ancient Celtic roller, the engraving on the metal remained imnations, but the hieroglyphic figures of the Egypt-printed on the paper, just as if it had been designed ians afford the best and earliest specimens of en- with a pen, in consequence of which Audrew graving properly so called. The Phoenicians prob- Mantegna set about making regular prints from his ably learned this art from the Egyptians; and their engravings. The correctness of this story, howevcoins, which are looked upon to be among the most er, as far as regards the priority of the discoverer, ancient extant, prove, as Mr. Strutt observes, that they is disputed by Strutt and others. were by no means indifferent artists. It is, however, generally supposed, that there are no remains in

It should seem that impressions from engravings on wood, had been taken in Germany prior to this,

and that the brief malers, or the makers of playing | planted on it, have yielded a very poor one. The cards, practised the art of card making about the mystery of this difference between plants, some fifteenth century, and from the making of cards of which are found to burn up, that is, impoverish were led to the execution of other figures of a de- lands, while others enrich it, and leave it fitter for yout nature, so as to form a kind of books contain- succeeding crops than they found it, is explained ing a history of the Old and New Testament, by Mr. Tull. This author having observed, that which was printed only on one side of the paper. breaking the earth, by digging or horse-hoeing beIn this manner the engraving both in wood and tween the plants, gave them great increase, found brass continued to be followed by the same artists, that it was this practice that enriched the earth: and in their hands made great advances to perfec- and that, while corn and such plants as stand close, tion. Martin Schoen, of Culmbach, was one of and cannot be hoed between, impoverish the the first who distinguished himself in this art. ground, and suffer no means of enriching it again Israel Von Mecheln, of Mechelen, was the rival of to be used, there were some other things, the crops Schoen; the style of which latter artist was follow- of which being planted thinner, gave room to the ed by Albert Durer. After this arose a succession earth to be ploughed, dug, or hoed between, and of distinguished engravers in France, England, and that these were the plants which were called the Holland. enriching kind by the farmers; and the whole secret lay in this, that the hoeing, ploughing, or otherwise breaking the earth between them, in order to kill the weeds, enriched the ground greatly more, in proportion, than these plants exhausted it; and the consequence was, that though they had thriven very well, yet the earth was left richer than before, notwithstanding all that they had imbibed from it.

Engraving in chiaro-scuro is justly ascribed to the Germans, and was first practised by Muir. At what time etching was introduced, is not known. One of the most early specimens of a print, by Albert Durer, is known by the name of the Cannon, dated 1518.

Eugraving with dots, called stippling, was of Italian invention, and was first practised by Agostino de Musis. The method of engraving in mezzotinto was commenced about the middle of the seventeenth century. Engraving in aquatinta is a recent invention. In modern times, every species of engraving has made great advances toward perfection. For mezzotinto and line engraving, steel has been lately brought into use, which not only enables the engraver to give greater delicacy, and a higher finish to his works, but affords ten times as many good impressions. Copper is now little used for fine engravings.

In wood engraving there has been still greater improvement. A few years since it was imagined that the birds and beasts of Bewick could never be surpassed. But Branstone Wright, Thompson and others, in England, have given a degree of spirit, delicacy and beauty to their productions, of which it was supposed that wood engravings were unsusceptible. They have shown that the art is one of great scope, and is capable of producing effects superior, in some departments, to line engraving.

ENSIGN. The flag or banner of a military band; a banner of colors; a standard; a figured cloth or piece of silk, attached to a staff, and usually with figures, colors or arms thereon, borne by an officer at the head of a company, troop or other band. The officer who carries the flag or colors, being the lowest commissioned officer in a company of infantry.

Naval ensign, is a large banner hoisted on a staff and carried over the poop or stern of a ship; used to distinguish ships of different nations, or to characterise different squadrons of the same navy.

ENTHUSIASM. Heat of imagination; violent passion or excitement of the mind, in pursuit of some object, inspiring extravagant hope and confidence of success. Hence the same heat of imagination, chastised by reason or experience, becomes a noble passion, an elevated fancy, a warm imagination, an ardent zeal, that forms sublime ideas, and prompts to the ardent pursuit of laudable objects. Such is the enthusiasm of the poet, the orator, the painter and the sculptor. Such is the enthusiasin of the patriot, the hero and the Christian.

ENNUI. A French term which is sometimes used to denote a kind of listlessness or unaptness for mental exertion; or which may be more scientifically defined to mean the uneasiness that prevails during the absence of mental impressions. ENTOMOLOGY. The science which treats The aversion from ennui, or the desire of intellectual of insects, as to their structure, habits and varieties. emotion is described by Helvetius, in his work The body of an insect consists of four principal 'On Mind,' as a very powerful and general spring of conduct, and he ascribes to this law of the mind, perhaps, a greater degree of influence than that which properly belongs to it, conformably to the avowed sentiments of a writer, who maintains that 'to judge is to feel.'

ENRICHING-PLANTS. A term used by Tull and other farmers to designate such plants as are found to improve land, rather than to exhaust it, and in consequence of which the same piece of land will produce a good crop of corn, though it would, without the assistance of their having been

parts, namely, the head, the trunk, the abdomen, and the limbs or extremities. The head is furnished in most insects with eyes, antennæ or horns, and a mouth. The eyes are various, both in color, shape, and number, in different kinds, some being of a different color from that of the head, and some of the same color, some placed close together, or almost touching each other, some having the pupil glassy and transparent, others having it scarcely distinguishable. Many insects have, besides the large eyes, also three small spherical bodies placed triangularly on the crown of the head, called ocelli, or stemmiata. The antennæ are two

articulated moveable processes, placed on the head, which are also subject to great variety in their form and structure, being setaceous, or bristle shaped, filiform, or thread-shaped, &c. The mouth in most insects is situated in the lower part of the head, and consist of the lips, upper and lower; the mandibles, or horny substances, one on each side of the mouth; the maxillæ, or jaws, two membranaceous substances, differing in figure from the mandibles, under which they are situated; the tongue, an involuted tubular organ, which constitutes the whole mouth in some insects, as the sphinx; the rostrum, beak, or snout, a moveable articulated member in the grashopper, the aphis, &c.; the proboscis, or trunk, which serves as a mouth in the housefly, bee, and some other insects; the feelers, small moveable filiform organs, placed mostly on each side the jaw, and resembling the antennæ, but much smaller; these vary in number from two to six in different insects.

bodies placed on slender stalks behind the wings in the tribe of winged insects, so called because they are supposed to keep the insect steady in its flight.

The internal parts of insects are less perfect and distinct than those of larger animals, and of course less known. The brain of insects is altogether different from the substance which bears that name in other animals, being little more than ganglions of nerves, two in number, that are observed in the crab, lobster, &c. The muscles consist of fasciculi of fibres, that serve apparently the office of producing two motions, namely, that of extending and that of bending. Some insects appear to be furnished with some floating vessels, which secrete a fluid varying in color in different tribes, but very similar to saliva. The esophagus, or organ of deglutition, is a straight short tube, consisting of annular muscular fibres, like the proboscis of the common fly.

The trunk, which is the second general division The organs of digestion vary very much in difof which an insect consists, comprehends that por-ferent tribes of insects. Most have a single stomtion situated between the head and the abdomen. ach, but some have it double, and others have a This consists of the thorax, or upper part of the manifold stomach. In bees the stomach is membody, to which the first pair of legs is attached; branaceous, fitted to receive the nectar of flowers: the breast, or under part of the thorax, to which the bug, the boatfly, and such as feed on animal the four posterior feet are attached; the breast bone, substances, have a muscular stomach. The beetle, a ridge running under the breast, which is conspic- ladybird, earwig, and some others that feed on other uous in some insects; and the scutellum, or escut- insects, have a double stomach, the first of which cheon, a lobe-like process, situated at the posterior is muscular, after the manner of a gizzard, and the part of the thorax. second is a membranaceous canal. Insects such as the cricket and grashopper, which have many stomachs, seem to employ them much after the manner of the ruminating animals.

The abdomen, or third principal portion of an insect's body, is composed of annular joints, or segments, which vary in form and number in different insects; this is distinguished into the back, or upper part, and the belly, or under part. The motion of the abdomen is most visible in the fly and bee tribes. To this division belong also the tail and the sting. The tail sometimes spreads like a leaf, as in the cockroach; and in other insects is bristle-shaped. The sting, which is peculiar to insects of the bee tribe and some few others, is sometimes simple, having but one dart, and sometimes compound, having two darts. In bees and wasps the sting is retractile, that is, capable of being drawn in; but in other insects it is almost always hid in the body, or seldom thrust out. In some tribes of insects it exists in the males, in others in the females only, but seldom in both sexes.

Instead of organs of respiration, it has been found that they have spiracula running on each side the body that serve for the reception of the air, and other vessels proceeding from these that serve for the exspiration of air. Insects, among the ancients, were reckoned to be bloodless animals; but it has since been ascertained that the process both of circulation and secretion goes forward in the bodies of insects, although in a different manner. The process of secretion is supposed to be performed by means of a number of long slender vessels, which float in the internal cavity of the body, serving to secrete different fluids, according to the nature of the animal; thus the bee, wasp, sphinx, &c. have two vessels situated at the bottom The members or extremities of insects are the of the sting, through which they discharge an acrid legs and the wings. Insects have sometimes six fluid. From the ant is extracted an acid well legs, but never more, except what are observable known to chymists, and other insects have other in the larvae, which are termed spirious feet. The fluids peculiar to themselves. As to the process feet vary in their form and use, being formed either of circulation in insects, little more is known at for running, swimming, or leaping, with or without present than that a contraction and dilatation of the claws or spines, &c. The wings are mostly two, vessels is observable in some kinds, particularly in but sometimes four in number; mostly placed on caterpillars; but the fluid which is supposed to each side the insect, so as that each pair should supply the place of blood is not of the same color. correspond in situation, form, &c.; but where The sexes in insects are of three kinds, namely, there is more than one pair, the first are mostly the males, the females, and the neuters, which larger than those behind. The wings are greatly have not the usual marks of either sex. diversified as to form, figure, texture, construction, are distinguished by the difference of size, bright&c. To the wings belong also the elytra, or wingness of colors, form of the antennæ, &c. ; the male cases, and the halteres, or poisers. The elytra are is always smaller than the female, and in some two coriaceous wings, which are expanded in flight, but when at rest serve to cover the abdomen and enclose their membranaceous wings, as in insects of the beetle tribe; the poisers are two globular

The sexes

cases the female is several hundred times bigger than the male; on the other hand, the males have brighter colors and larger antennæ. In many cases the females have no wings; and in some instances,

as that of the bee, the female has a sting, but the | armies, which amounted to fifty legions, fifty-seven male none. cohorts, and sixty soldiers. After this enumeration, we find no more till that of Vespasian, which was the last.

The metamorphoses of insects is one characteristic of these animals which distinguishes them from all others. In most insects the egg is the first state; but there are examples of viviparous insects, as in ENVIRON. Among Military men, relates to the case of the aphis, the fly, &c. The insect in that complete investment of a town, or fortress, the second or caterpillar state, is now called the which utterly precludes the acquisition of supplies, larva, but formerly the eruca. The larvæ differ or of reinforcements, and, in a general sense, may very much in different insects; those of the but- be said to be the basis of a blockade. When we terfly and moth are properly called caterpillars, say that a place is environed, we are not indiscrimthose of the flies and bees are called maggots. inately to conclude, that any circumvallation has The larvae of the beetle tribe differ from the com- taken place; but, that the country round is so com plete insect only by being destitute of wings. But-pletely possessed by the enemy, as to render any terflies, in their caterpillar state, are very voracious, attempt to afford succor to the inhabitants unavailbut in their complete state they are satisfied with ing. Thus, if there be several passes leading to a the lightest and most delicate nutriment. The town situated in a valley, surrounded by a mounthird state into which insects transform themselves tain inaccessible, or impassable in every part, exis the pupa, or chrysalis. In most of the beetle tribe the pupa is furnished with short legs, but the pupa of the butterfly tribe is without legs: that of the fly tribe is oval, but that of the bee tribe is very shapeless. The last and perfect state of insects is called by Linnæus the imago, in which state it continues until its extinction. The life of insects varies as to its duration. Some, as bees and spiders, are supposed to live for a considerable time; but others will not live beyond a year, a day, or some hours, in their perfect state, although they will continue for some time in their larva state. Water insects generally live longer than land insects.

ENUMERATION. The act of enumerating, or counting. At the time of our Saviour's birth, Augustus Cæsar had commanded an enumeration to be made of all the world, or rather of all the people under his empire: though several able authors are of opinion, that the census, tax, or enumeration mentioned by St. Luke, did not extend to the whole empire, but only to the people of Judea. At Rome, it was an usual thing to have an enumeration made of all the families: the first of these was under Servius Tullius, when the men amounted to eighty thousand. Pompey and Crassus made another, when they reached to four hundred thousand. That of Cæsar did not exceed one hundred thousand; so that the civil wars must have destroyed three hundred thousand Roman citizens. Under Augustus, in the year 725, the Roman citizens throughout the empire were numbered at four millions sixty-three thousand. In the year of Rome 746, the citizens, being numbered again, were found four millions two hundred and thirty-three thousand. In the year 766, being the last year of Augustus's reign, that prince together with Tiberius, made another enumeration of the citizens of Rome, when they were found four millions one hundred and thirty-seven thousand persons. Claudius made a new computation in the year of Christ 48, when, as Tacitus relates it, the Roman citizens throughout the whole empire amounted to six millions nine hundred and sixty-four thousand; though others represent the number as considerably greater. A very rare, yet indisputable medal of Claudius, never yet made public, expresses the precise number in this list made by Claudius, which was called ostensio, to be seven millions of people fit to bear arms, besides all the soldiers on foot in the

cept at those passes; or if a town stands on a peninsula, of which the isthmus is cut off by the enemy, who likewise possess the navigation of the circumferent waters, such towns are, to all intents and purposes, environed; and, if the blockade be duly supported, must in time surrender merely from a want of supplies.

ENVOY. A person deputed to negotiate some affair with any foreign prince or state. There are envoys ordinary and extraordinary, as well as ambassadors: they are equally the same under the protection of the law of nations, and enjoy all the privileges of ambassadors, only differing from them in this, that they are not treated with equal ceremony..

EPACT. In Chronology, a number arising from the excess of the common solar year above the lunar, whereby the age of the moon may be found out every year. The excess of the solar year above the lunar, is eleven days; or the epact of any year expresses the number of days from the last new moon of the old year, which was the beginning of the present lunar year, to the first of January. The first year of the cycle of the moon, the epact is 0, because the lunar year begins with the solar. On the second, the lunar year has begun 11 days before the solar year: therefore the epact is 11. On the third, it has begun twice 11 before the solar year: therefore the epact is 22. On the fourth, it begins three times 11 days sooner than the solar year: the epact would therefore be 33; but thirty days being a synodical month, must that year be intercalated; or that year must be reckoned to consist of thirteen synodical months, and there remains 3, which is the true epact of the year; and so on to the end of the cycle, adding 11 to the epact of the last year, and always rejecting the 30, gives the epact of the present year.

To find the epact until the year 1900, subtract 1 from the golden number, and multiplying the remainder by 11, reject the thirties, and the epact is given.

EPAULETTE. Is a distinguishing ornament, worn upon the shoulders of commissioned and of non-commissioned officers of some descriptions. The epaulette is always made to correspond in color with the bindings and lace of the uniform:

therefore where yellow binding is in use, gold em- EPHEMERIDES. In Literary History, an apbroidery, &c. are employed, and where white bind-pellation given to those books or journals, which ing is adopted, silver embroidery only is suitable. show the motions and places of the planets for The military service is by no means uniform in this every day in the year. It is from the tables conornament, some being epaulettes of oue, some of tained in these ephemerides, that eclipses, and all another pattern, according to the fancies of the the variety of aspects of the planets, are found. commandants respectively. The general rule is, The name is also given to periodical publications that all general and field officers, as well as all su- on various subjects. perior staff officers, wear two epaulettes, the rest of the officers in a corps wearing but one. Though, EPHOD. A sacerdotal garment, in use among as above stated, variety obtains, yet the generality the ancient Jews, supposed to have been a kind of consist of a rich strap, of gold or silver lace, cush-linen alb, or surplice, worn by persons of distincioned below, to give it a square appearance upon tion, of various characters. the shoulder, and ornamented at its lower extremity It is very hard to say precisely what the ephod with rich bullion, and fringe of a corresponding was; and there is room enough for the interpreters description; the upper end ordinarily fastens under, to be divided about it. The only point they are or on the cape, to a button; some being moveable, agreed upon is, that it was an upper garment worn for the purpose of admitting a belt to pass under- over all the rest, immediately under the pectoral or breast-plate. Some hold it had sleeves, others deny it. The generality agree, that it was very short, though some maintain that it hung down to the feet behind.

neath.

There were two kinds of ephods; the one common to all who assisted in the temple, being only made of common linen, mentioned in the first book of Samuel, ii, 18; the other peculiar to the highpriest, mentioned Exodus xxviii, 6, 15, to be made of gold, of blue, and of purple, of scarlet, and fine twined linen, with cunning work; having two shoulder-pieces, with a curious girdle of the same matter, and two onyxes, with the names of the children of Israel engraved thereon, six upon each stone. These onyxes were set in gold, and served as buttons upon each shoulder.

Josephus says that it was a cubit long. It consisted, as some suppose, of two parts, the one an oblong rectangular piece, hanging down behind from the shoulders to the feet; the other a short rectangular piece, which hung down before, the length of a cubit. These two pieces were joined together upon the shoulders, with some proper fastening, as loops, buttons, or the like.

EPHEMERA. The dayfly or May-fly, in Zoology, a genus belonging to the order of neuroptera. There are eleven species. These flies take their name of May-fly from the shortness of their life, and are distinguished into several species. Some live several days; others do not take flight till the setting of the sun, and do not even live to see him rise. Some exist but one hour, others but half that time. With respect to those that live several days, Mr. Barbut observes, there is a peculiarity incident to them. They have to cast off one slough more, an operation which sometimes takes twenty-four hours to complete. To effect this they cling fast to a tree. The ephemeræ, before they flutter in the air have in some manner been fishes. They remain in the states of larva and chrysalis for one, two, or three years. The chrysalis only differs from the larva by there being observable on its back, cases for wings. Both have on their sides small fringes of hair, which when put into motion, serve them as fins. Nothing can be more curious than the plying of those little oars in the water. The abdomen is terminated, as well as in their It is also expressed in the second book of Samstate of flies, by three threads. These larvæ scoop uel, vi, 14, that upon the removal of the ark of the themselves out dwellings in the banks of rivers; covenant from the house of Obed-Edom, David and they are small tubes made like siphons, the danced for joy, girt with a linen ephod; whence one serving for an entrance, the other affording some authors have concluded, that the ephod was them an outlet. The banks of some rivers are also a regal garment, worn ou solemn occasions. often perforated with them. When the waters It is probable that the peculiarity of the ephod of decrease, they dig fresh holes lower down, in order the high-priest did not consist in its being of a difto enjoy the water. The season and hour when ferent shape from that which was worn by other the chrysalis of the different species of the ee-persons; but in the richness of the materials of meræ turn into flies, maintain a kind of regularity. which it was made, and the fine embroidery and The heat, the rise or fall of the waters, accelerate, jewels with which it was adorned. however, or postpone their final display. The ephemera of the Rhine appear in the air two hours before sunset. These flies are hatched almost all at the same instant in such numbers as to darken the air. The females, by the help of the threads of their tail and the flapping of their wings, support themselves on the surface of the water, and in that situation they drop their eggs in clusters. One female will lay seven or eight hundred eggs, which sink to the bottom. The larvae that escape the fish, set about the construction of habitations to shelter them from danger. When the flies have propagated, they are seen to die, and fall by heaps.

EPIC, or HEROIC POEM. A poem expressed in narration, formed upon a story partly real and partly feigned; representing, in a sublime style, some signal and fortunate action, distinguished by a variety of great events, to form the morals, and affect the mind with the love of heroic virtue. We may distinguish three parts of the definition, namely, the matter, the form, and the end. The matter includes the action of the fable, under which are ranged the incidents, episodes, characters, morals, and machinery. The form comprehends the way or manner of the narration, whether by the poet himself, or by any persons introduc