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sometimes also used among mathematicians, in the | with hunger, will make its attack upon mankind. like sense as calculation. Fortunately, the species of this rapacious invader is scarce, or his depredations would be terrible inCONCENTRATION. In general signifies the deed; for the Indians assert, that it will carry off a bringing things nearer a centre. Hence the parti-deer or calf in its talons, with as much ease as an cles of salt in sea-water are said to be concentrated, eagle will a lamb. When their wings are extendthat is, brought nearer to each other, by evaporated, they are said to measure eighteen feet across; ing the watery part.

CONCHOLOGY. "The study of shells, or testaceous animals," it has been well observed by a plain, but ingenious writer, "is a branch of natural history, though not greatly useful in human economy, yet perhaps by the infinite beauties of the subjects it treats of, is adapted to recreate the senses, and insensibly lead the amazed admirer into the contemplation of the glory of the Divinity, in their creation." Or, in the more harmonious periods of the poet, we would say,

"Each shell, each crawling insect holds a rank
Important, in the plan of him who framed
This scale of beings;"

Shells appear to form a part of the creation not immediately subservient to the purposes of human life. This is granted; but they are a link in the great chain of nature; they constitute a department of rational inquiry worthy the researches of the man of science; and when we consider the amazing diversity of singular and beautiful objects they embrace, are such, we are persuaded, as cannot fail to arrest in a particular degree the regard of every common observer.

CONCORDANCE. A book containing the principal words in the Holy Scriptures, in alphabetical order, with a designation of the places in which they are to be found. Works of this kind are useful for the exegetical theologian, because the comparison of parallel passages is one of the most important auxiliaries of exegesis; and not less so for the preacher, because they enable him to examine, at once, all the passages of scripture which treat of the same subject. The first work of this kind was published by Hugo Sancto Caro. Some of the most approved concordances in English, are those of Cruden, Butterworth, Brown, and Taylor.

CONCRETE. In logic, is used in contradistinction to abstract; for example, when we consider any quality, as whiteness, inherent in any subject, as suppose in snow, if we may say the show is white, then we speak of whiteness in the concrete; but if we consider whiteness by itself, as a quality that may be in paper, in ivory, and in other things, as well as in snow, we are then said to consider, or to take it in the abstract.

CONDENSER. A pneumatic engine or syringe, whereby an uncommon quantity of air may be crowded into a given space; so that sometimes ten atmospheres, or ten times as much air as there is at the same time in the same space, without the engine, may be thrown in by means of it, and its egress prevented by valves properly disposed.

CONDOR. The Condor possesses all the formidable qualities of the eagle, yet in a much higher degree; for it is not only an enemy to the bird and brute creation, but, when violently pressed

though one, which was shot by a gentleman in Peru, which he measured with the greatest exactitude, was only twelve; the great feathers upon the wings were a beautiful shining black, measuring two feet four inches in length; those upon the breast and neck were of a light brown, and those upon the back were rather of a darker shade; a short down of the same color covered the head; the eyes were black, and surrounded with a circle of reddish brown; the beak was about four inches in length, hooked downwards, and the extremity white; the thigh bone measured ten inches, the leg five, the toes three, and the claws near one; and both the legs and toes were covered with large scales.

The condors generally confine themselves to their native mountains, or occasionally fly to the sea-shore in search of a greater supply of food. It is supposed that the roc, a bird which the Arabian writers have given a most marvellous description of, is a species of the condor; and the great bird of Tarnapor, in the East Indies, in all probability is of the same race.

CONDOTTIERI, (leaders.) The captains of those bands of soldiers which were frequently in Italy towards the end of the middle ages, who sought for service in every war, and fought not for their country, but for pay and plunder, and offered their assistance to every party which could pay them. These bands originated in the endless wars and feuds of the Italian states and governments at that time, and the whole military power soon came into their hands. They consisted principally of men too ignorant or too indolent to obtain an honest livelihood, or who wished to escape the punishment of some crime. They included, however, many people who had been deprived of their fortunes by these wars. As these men had not the slightest interest in those who had hired them, but that of being paid, and of finding opportunities for plunder, wars terminated with very little bloodshed, sometimes with none; for when the bands of condottieri met, the smallest in number not unfrequently surrendered to the other. The most ambitious among them, however, had higher views. There is little difference between most of the condottieri and some of the nobler kinds of robbers.

CONDUCTOR OF LIGHTNING. A pointed metallic rod, contrived by Dr. Franklin, to be fixed to buildings, to secure them from the effects of lightning.

CONDUIT. In architecture, a long, narrow passage between two walls, or under ground, for secret communication between various apartments, of which many are to be found in old buildings; also a canal of pipes, for the conveyance of water; a sort of subterraneous or concealed aqueduct. The construction of conduits requires science and

care. The ancient Romans excelled in them, and formed the lower parts, whereon the water ran, with cement of such an excellent quality, that it has become as hard as the stone itself, which it was employed to join. There are conduits of Roman aqueducts still remaining, of from five to six feet in height, and three feet in width. Conduits, in modern times, are generally pipes of wood, lead, iron, or pottery, for conveying the water from the main spring or reservoirs to the different houses and places where it is required.

CONFIRMATION. This is a religious rite, in which persons baptized in infancy take upon themselves their baptismal engagements; and, in which those baptized in adult years may renew and ratify their baptismal engagements. The term confirmation is of modern origin; but, the rite is supposed to be the same as that mentioned by St. Paul to the Hebrews, called the laying on of hands. It was universally practised in the primitive church; and is still practised by the Roman Catholics, the Greek church, the Protestant Episcopalians, the Lutherans, and by some others.

CONFLAGRATION. A general burning of a city, or other considerable place. In which sense, Nero is said to have procured the Christians to be accused of the conflagration of Rome, which was

CONFESSION, in Theology. A public declaration of one's faith, or the faith of a public body; also a part of the liturgy, in which an acknowledgement of guilt is made by the whole congregation. Auricular confession, a private confession of one's sins, made by each individual in the Rom-done by his own order. ish church to his priest or father confessor. It is so called because it is made by whispering in his

ear.

CONFESSOR. A Christian, who has made a solemn, and resolute profession of the faith, and has endured torments in its defence. The title of confessors was given in the early ages of the church, and particularly towards the commencement of the first century of the Christian era, to those, who, in the face of death, and at the expense of honor, fortune, and all the other advantages of the world, had confessed with fortitude, before the Roman tribunals, their firm attachment to the religion of Jesus.

In ecclesiastical history we frequently find the word confessors used for martyrs; in aftertimes, it was confined to those who, after having been tormented by the tyrants, were permitted to live and die in peace. And at last it was also used for those who, after having lived a good life, died under an opinion of sanctity. According to St. Cyprian, he who presented himself to torture, or even to martyrdom, without being called to it, was not called a confessor, but a professor: and if any out of a want of courage abandoned his country, and became a voluntary exile for the sake of the faith, he was called exterris.

But the word is more ordinarily restrained to that grand period, or catastrophe of our world, wherein the face of nature is expected to be changed by a deluge of fire, as it was anciently by that of water. The ancient Chaldæans, Pythagoreans, Platonists, Epicureans, Stoics, Celts, and Etrurians, appear to have had a notion of the conflagration; though whence they should derive it, unless from the sacred books, it is difficult to conceive; except perhaps, from the Phoenicians, who themselves had it from the Jews.

The Celts, whose opinions resembled those of the eastern nations, held, that after the burning of the world, a new period of existence would commence. The ancient Etrurians, or Tuscans, also concurred with other western and northern nations of Celtic origin, as well as with the Stoics, in asserting the entire renovation of nature after a long period, or great year, when a similar succession of events would again take place. The cosmogony of an ancient Etrurian, preserved by Suidas, limits the duration of the universe to a period of twelve thousand years, six thousand of which passed in the production of the visible world, before the formation of man. The Stoics also maintained, that the world is liable to destruction from the prevalence of moisture, or of drought; the former producing an universal inundation, and the latter an The veneration that was paid to both martyrs universal conflagration. These, they say, succeed and confessors in the early ages of the Christian each other in nature, as regularly as winter and church is hardly credible. The distinguishing summer. When the universal inundation takes honors and privileges they enjoyed, the authority place, the whole surface of the earth is covered with which their counsels and decisions were at- with water, and all animal life is destroyed; after tended, would furnish ample matter for an interest- which nature is renewed, and subsists as before, ing history. Without doubt it was both wise and till the element of fire, prevailing in its turn, dries just to treat with respect, and to invest with extra-up all the moisture, converts every substance into ordinary privileges, those Christian heroes, since nothing was more adapted to encourage others to suffer with cheerfulness in the cause of Christ. Nevertheless, as the best and wisest institutions were generally perverted by the weakness or corruption of men, from their original purpose; so the authority and privileges granted, in the beginning, to martyrs and confessors, became, in process of time, a support to superstition, an incentive to enthusiasm, and a source of innumerable evils and abuses.

CONFESSOR is also a priest, in the Romish church, who has a power to hear sinners in the sacrament of penance, and to give them absolution.

its own nature, and at last, by an universal conflagration, reduces the world to its pristine state. At this period all material forms are lost in one chaotic mass, all animated nature is reunited to the Deity, and nature again exists in its original form, as one whole, consisting of God and matter. From this chaotic state, however, it again emerges, by the energy of the efficient principle; and gods and men, and all the forms of regulated nature are renewed, to be dissolved and renewed in endless succession. The doctrine of conflagration is a natural consequence of the general system of Stoicism. For, since, according to this system, the whole process of nature is carried on in a necessary series of

causes and effects, when that operative fire which extraordinary might have been apprehended; but at first, bursting from chaos, gave form to all things, whether in the way of fire, or water, may, perhaps, and which has since pervaded and animated all to some, leave room to doubt. But it is scarcely uature, shall have consumed its nutriment, that is, conceivable, that the comet should bring any vehewhen the vapors, which are the food of the celes-ment degrees of heat, out of those regions it comes tial fires, shall be exhausted, a deficiency of moist- from, whatever heat it may carry thither. ure must produce an universal conflagration.

Various are the sentiments of authors on the subject of the conflagration; the cause whence it is to arise, and the effects it is to produce. Divines ordinarily account for it metaphysically; and will have it take its rise from a miracle, as a fire from heaven. Philosophers contend for its being produced from natural causes; and will have it effected according to the laws of mechanics: some think an eruption of a central fire sufficient for the purpose; and add, that this may be occasioned several ways; viz. either by having its intensity increased; which, again, may be effected either by being driven into less space by the encroachments of the superficial cold, or by an increase of the inflammability of the fuel whereon it is fed: or by having the resistance of imprisoning earth weakened; which may happen, either from the diminution of its matter, by the consumption of its central parts; or by weakening the cohesion of the constituent parts of the mass, by the excess or the defect of moisture.

Others look for the cause of the conflagration in the atmosphere; and suppose, that some of the meteors there engendered in unusual quantities, and exploded with unusual vehemence, from the concurrency of various circumstances, may be made to effect it, without seeking any further. The astrologers account for it from a conjunction of all the planets in the sign Cancer; as the deluge, say they, was occasioned by their conjunction in Capricorn. This was an opinion adopted by the ancient Chaldæans.

Lastly: others have recourse to a still more effectual and flaming machine; and conclude the world is to undergo its conflagration from the near approach of a comet, in its return from the sun. Those wandering bodies do indeed seem to menace us a little; being able, both by their transverse motion across the earth's way, by the hugeness of their size, and the intense fire wherewith they glow in their recess from the perihelion, to produce the most signal changes and revolutions in the system of things.

Mr. Whiston has shown, that they are extremely well fitted to produce the phenomena of the deluge; and has gone a good way towards proving, that the comet of 1680, was the very body to which that event was owing; as being then in its approach towards the sun, and its atmosphere crowded with the watery vapors, which it had gathered in those inconceivably cold regions, into which it had fled off in its aphelion. This same comet, Sir Isaac Newton has calculated, when in its perihelion, December the 8th, was heated, by the vicinity of the sun, to a degree two thousand times more hot than red-hot iron: he shows, likewise, that it would scarce be cool again in fifty thousand years.

This same comet Dr. Halley observed November the 11th, was not above a semidiameter of the earth from the earth's way: so that had the earth, at that time, been in that part of its orbit, something very

CONFUSION OF TONGUES. In the History of the World, is a memorable event, which happened in the one hundred and first year, according to the Hebrew chronology, after the flood, B. C. 2247, at the overthrow of Babel; and which was providentially brought about, in order to facilitate the dispersion of mankind, and the population of the earth. Until this period, there had been one common language, which formed a bond of union, that prevented the separation of mankind into distinct nations; and some have supposed, that the tower of Babel was erected as a kind of fortress, by which the people intended to defend themselves against that separation which Noah had projected.

There has been a considerable difference of opinion, as to the nature of this confusion, and the manner in which it was effected. Some learned men have imagined that it was brought about by a temporary confusion of their speech, or rather of their apprehensions, causing them, whilst they continued together and spoke the same language, to understand the words differently: Scaliger is of this opinion. Others again account for this event, by the privation of all language, and by supposing that mankind were under a necessity of associating together, and of imposing new names on things by common consent. Another opinion ascribes the confusion to such an indistinct remembrance of the original language which they spoke before, as made them speak it very differently; so that by the various inflections, terminations, and pronunciations of divers dialects, they who could no more understand one another, than they who understand Latin can understand those who speak French, Italian, or Spanish, though all these languages arise out of it. This opinion is adopted by Casaubon, and by bishop Patrick in his commentary; and it is certainly much more probable than either of the former. Mr. Shuckford maintains, that the confusion arose from small beginnings, by the invention of new words in either of the three families of Shem, Ham, and Japhet, which might contribute to separate them from one another; and that in each family new differences of speech might gradually arise, so that each of these families went on to divide and subdivide among themselves.

The ingenious and learned Dr. Bryant has advanced a new and singular hypothesis, both with respect to the confusion of tongues and the dispersion. He supposes that the confusion of language was local and partial, and limited to Babel only. By the passage which our translators render the whole earth, he understands every region: and by the same words in ver. 9, the whole region, or province. This confusion was occasioned, as he supposes, by a labial failure; so that the people could not articulate. Thus their speech was confounded, but not altered; for as they separated, they recovered their true tenor of pronunciation, and the language of the earth continued for some ages nearly the same. The interviews between

the Hebrews and other nations, recorded in Scrip- | ture, were conducted without an interpreter; and he farther observes, that the various languages which subsist at this day retain sufficient relation to show, that they were once dialects from the same matrix, and that their present dissimilarity is the effect of time.

CONGELATION. Signifies the passing of any body from a fluid to a solid state: so that the term is thus applicable to metals, when they resume their solid form after being heated; to water, when it freezes; to wax, spermaceti, &c. when they become solid after having been rendered fluid by heat; and, in general, to all processes, where the whole substance of the fluid is converted into a solid.

CONGRESS. An assembly of envoys, commissioners, deputies, &c. from different courts, who meet to agree on matters of general interest; also an assembly of the deputies from the different states in the republics of America. The congress of the United States consists of a Senate and House of Representatives. Each state sends two senators, and one representative for every forty thousand inhabitants. In the slave states five slaves are reckoned as three freemen. Senators are chosen for six years, representatives for two.

CONGREVE-ROCKET. An invention so called from the inventor, Sir William Congreve, by which balls and other combustibles are discharged to an immense distance.

CONIC SECTIONS. Curve lines and plane figures produced by the intersection of a plane with a cone. These sections are derived from the different directions in which the solid cone is cut by a plane passing through it; they are the triangle, circle, ellipse, parabola, and hyperbola.

CONJUNCTION. In astronomy, the meeting of two stars or planets, in the same degree of the zodiac. This conjunction is either true or apparent. The true conjunction is when a right line, drawn from the eye through the centre of one of the bodies, would pass through that of the other: in this case the bodies are in the same degree of longitude and latitude: and here the conjunction is also said to be central, if the same line, continued from the two centres through the eye, do also pass through the centre of the earth.

Apparent conjunction, is when the two bodies do not meet precisely in the same point, but are joined with some latitude. In this case a right line, drawn through the centre of the two bodies, would not pass through the centre of the earth, but through the eye of the spectator.

The moon is in conjunction with the sun, when they meet in the same point of the ecliptic, which happens every month; and eclipses of the sun are always occasioned by the conjunction of the sun and moon in or near the nodes of the ecliptic.

ceeded to the throne of England after having gained the battle of Hastings.

CONSANGUINITY. Or kindred, is the connexion or relation of persons descended from the same stock or common ancestor; and is either lineal or collateral. Lineal consanguinity is that which subsists between persons, of whom one is descended in a direct line from the other; as grandfather, father, and son. Collateral consanguinity is that which subsists between persons descended from the same common ancestor, but not from one another; as brothers, uncles, and nephews.

CONSEQUENCE. That which follows from any principle by way of inference; among logicians, the last part or proposition of an argument, in distinction from the antecedents, being something gathered from a preceding argument.

CONSIGNMENT. The sending, or delivering over, goods, money, or other property, to another person. It may be either consigned unconditionally, or for some particular purpose. Consigned goods are supposed in general to be the property of him by whom they are consigned, but to be at the disposal of him to whom they are consigned.

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CONSOLIDATION. In medicine and surgery, the action of uniting broken bones, or the lips of the wounds, by means of consolidating remedies: taking corruption out of the wounds, and preserving the temperature of the parts, cause the nourishment to be fitly applied to the part affected. Among the many instances of the consolidating power blood and flesh, we have a very remarkable one in Bartholine's Medical Observations. A man being condemned to have his nose cut off by the hand of the common executioner, the friends, who were to be present, provided a new loaf of warm bread, which was cut in the middle, and the nose received in it as it fell from the face: the nose was after this nicely placed on the face again; and, being sewed on, the whole in time consolidated, and left no other marks of the ignominy than the scar round the whole nose, and the traces of the stitches.

CONSTABLE. This appellation hath afforded ample matter of disquisition to learned antiquarians. History has traced it backwards from its introduc tion to England, through France, Germany, and Greece, to the imperial seat at Constantinople, in the days of Constantine the Great; and if we ascend farther towards the East, we shall find the term cone or cûne in Palestine, which signified in the times of the Old Testament, a stability, strength, or stay.

Some trace of this word has been discoverable in the appellation of Laocoon at Troy, and particuCONQUEROR. In a general sense, one who larly in that of Constantine, who was himself of has gained a battle or any thing by means of fight-oriental extraction, having sprung from Dardania, ing; particularly applied to William I. who suc- a country of Upper Moesia, and said by flatterers to

have been descended from Dardanus and the Tro- | towards the south pole, which motion is reprejans. It is not improbable that this appellation of sented by Cancer, or the Crab, which often runs the emperor might have occasioned the adoption backwards. The heat which usually follows in of the word into the Roman language about the the next month is denoted by the Lion, an animal same time. For it was at that period that the word remarkable for its fierceness, and which at this count, obviously deduced from cone or cune, first season, impelled by thirst, leaves the desert, and became a name of dignity; and from thence was visits the banks of the Nile. transmitted westwards, with some variation, according to the different genius of languages throughout the provinces.

About the time of harvest the sun enters the sixth sign, and this season was characterized by a Virgin, or female reaper, bearing an ear of corn. Amongst the Saxons the word was koning or When the sun enters Libra, the days and nights kyninge, from which, without doubt, we derive our are equal all over the world, and seem to observe word king. Moreover, the word stole, stolle, stafle, an equilibrium, like a balance. Autumn, which or stable, by an easy transmutation of the several produces fruit, brings with it a variety of diseases, letters frequent in almost all languages, which and this season is denoted by the venomous Scorseems to be the other constituent of the appellation | pion, which is thought to wound with its sting as it constable, is likewise common to the languages of receded. The fall of the leaf was the season for the middle ages, and signifies a standing place, hunting, and the stars, which marked the sun's division, or department, called by the Romans path at this time, were aptly represented by a statio. According to this etymology, the word huntsman or archer. constable signifies the stability or stay of the place, or the strong man of the division.

CONSTELLATIONS. As soon as astronomy begun to be studied, it must have been found necessary to divide the heavens into separate portions, and to give each some name and representation, in order that astronomers, in speaking of the stars, might be understood. Accordingly we find that at a very early period of the world, the visible heavens were separated into constellations or collections of stars. Those called Orion, Arcturus, and the Pleiades, are mentioned in the book of Job; and, in other ancient books, there are references to the same subject.

The sections of the sky or clusters of stars, when first made, were represented by the ancients under the outlines of natural objects, or of certain imaginary figures suggested to them by their own fancy, or else by the actual disposition of the stars themselves, which in some instances is very striking. Thus we have obvious representations of crosses and triangles; the Northern Crown, or Corona Borealis bears a strong resemblance to a wreath or garland; and the head of the Bull, or Taurus, is known under the same name by different nations, who probably never had, at the time of its invention, any intercourse with each other. Even our Indians who wander near the banks of the Missouri call it the Deer's Head. This analogy, however, in most cases is exceedingly faint and imperfect.

As a specimen of what ingenuity can accomplish, when aided by an active imagination, an account will here be given of the characters which denote the signs or constellations in the zodiac. These are thought to be less arbitrary than those in the other parts of the heavens. The animals by which they are denoted are Chaldean or Egyptian hieroglyphics; and were perhaps designed as emblems of the different productions of nature, in those seasons over which they preside, or else represented some remarkable occurrence in each month. Thus, the spring signs, Aries, Taurus, and Gemini, were distinguished for the production of such animals as were held in the highest esteem; the third month, being the most abundant, was represented by Gemini. When the sun enters the fourth sign, it retrogrades, or begins to return

The Goat, which delights in clambering, is the emblem of the winter solstice, when the sun begins to ascend from the southern tropic, and gradually to increase in height for the ensuing half year. Aquarius is represented by the figure of a man pouring out water from an urn, an emblem of the rainy and uncomfortable season of winter. The Fish, or twelfth and last old zodiacal sign, denoted the fishing season. The severity of winter being over, and the flocks not affording sustenance, the seas and rivers were then open and abounded with fish.

The number of constellations is now ninety-two; of which twelve are in the zodiac; thirty-five are in the northern hemisphere; and forty-five in the southern hemisphere. The ancient constellations, including those in the zodiac, were only forty-eight in number. As it is not very probable that the ancients crossed the equator, they never could have seen the stars in the south polar circle; and it therefore remained for modern astronomers to group the stars in that portion of the heavens. The ancients likewise often left spaces in the sky, between their groups, filled with what they call unformed stars, some of which have since been arranged into constellations; so that at present we have represented on our celestial charts the number above given.

The heavens being thus divided, it is comparatively an easy task to number and name the stars which compose each group. By this means the astronomer becomes as familiar with the heavens, as the geographer is with the earth. The former can as readily refer to the place of any particular constellations or to the several stars which compose them, as the latter can, on a map of the world, to any particular country, or to the cities which are found in it.

CONSTITUTION, (in Law.) Properly, any form of government regularly constituted; in a particular sense, the mixed and the popular form of government in England, consisting of kings, lords, and commons, or the free constitution of the United States.

CONSUL. An officer commissioned by government, to reside in foreign countries of any consider

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