that of the osier. It is used as fuel. Shoots spring other games. The circensian games appear to up from the roots in immense profusion. The have been adopted by the Romans from the Etrusleaves, when they first burst, have a beautiful scar- cans in the earliest ages. Romulus established the let color; they then become green, and have both games at the circus almost as soon as his power; the taste and smell of cloves. The blossom is white, and the rape of the Sabines, which took place at and has no smell. The fruit resembles an acorn. the first exhibition of these games, probably led It is ripe at the end of autumn, when oil is obtained him to dedicate them to Consus, the giver of good by bruising and boiling it. The natives anoint counsels. The circus at first was a wooden enthemselves with the oil, which is skimmed off, and closure, in which the spectators stood, a few seats they also mix it with cocoa nut oil, and burn it in being placed for the most distinguished persons. lamps. During all audiences with the sovereign It is said that in the earliest periods of these exhibiof Candy this oil is burnt. When the trees become tions, the gaols or terms, round which the chariots too old, they are cut down, and their places are were obliged to turn, were armed with several soon occupied by young shoots, that rise from the swords, presenting their points towards the horses, roots in vast profusion. Formerly, many of these thus increasing the interest of the contest by the young twigs were cut as sticks, which are highly dangers to which it was exposed. prized; but this is now prohibited.

The branches which are three years old are lopped off; the epidermis is scraped off with a knife, having one side concave, and the other convex: the true bark is then ripped up, loosened by the convex side of the knife, and separated from the wood. The smaller portions are then put into the larger. They are then dried in the sun. When the drying is complete, the cinnamon is packed into bundles, which weigh about thirty pounds. These bundles are bound with bamboo twigs. They are then marked and numbered.

When the cinnamon is brought to Columbo, previous to its shipment for Europe, it is examined by the surgeons in the Company's service in rotation; and this is a most painful duty, as the only test is the taste. The continued chewing of this pungent substance, excoriates the mouth in spite of the utmost precaution. Experience has shown, that the evil effects of the chewing is best alleviated by occasionally eating bread and butter.

CIRCUITS. In England, certain divisions of the kingdom, through which the judges pass once a year, or oftener, to hold courts and administer justice. A similar division exists in the United States in respect to the national court.

CIRCULAR. Any thing that is described, or moved in a round; as the circumference of a circle, or the surface of a globe. The circular form is of all others the best disposed for motion, and the most capacious. The modern astronomers show, that the heavenly bodies do not move in circular, but in elliptic orbits.

CIRCULATION, in Anatomy. The natural motion of the blood in a living animal, whereby it proceeds from the heart to all parts of the body by the arteries, and returns to the heart by the veins.

CIRCUMFERENCE. The curve line which bounds a circle; and otherwise called a periphery, the boundary of a right-lined figure being expressed by the term perimeter. The circumference of every circle is supposed to be divided into three hundred and sixty degrees. The angle at the circumference of a circle is double that at the centre.

CIRCUS. In antiquity, an edifice in use among the Romans for the exhibition of chariot races, and

CISTERN. Is properly used for a subterraneous reservoir of rain-water. Earthen cisterns must be made with good cement, to retain the water. And the bottom should be covered with sand to sweeten and preserve it. Authors mention a cistern at Constantinople, the vaults whereof are supported by two rows of pillars, two hundred and twelve in each row, each pillar being two feet in diameter. They are planted circularly, and in radii tending to that in the centre.

Anciently there were cisterns all over the country in Palestine. There were some likewise in cities and private houses. As the cities for the most part were built on mountains, and the rains fell regularly in Judea at two seasons of the year only, in spring and autumn, people were obliged to keep water in cisterns in the country, for the use of their cattle; and in cities for the conveniency of the inhabitants. There are cisterns of very large dimensions to be seen at this day in Palestine, some of which, are a hundred and fifty paces long, and fifty-four wide. There is one to be seen at Ramah of two and thirty paces in length, and eight and twenty in width. Wells and cisterns, fountains and springs, are generally confounded in the Scripture language.

CITIZEN, or CITTIZEN. A native or inhabitant of a city, vested with the freedom and rights thereof. The word comes from civis. Augustus, upon numbering the Roman citizens, found they amounted to upwards of four millions. To make a good Roman citizen, there were three things required: that he was an inhabitant of Rome; that he were enrolled in one of the thirty-five tribes; and that he were capable of dignities. Those strangers to whom were granted the rights and privileges of Roman citizens, were properly only honorary citizens. By the Porcian law it was ordained, that no citizen of Rome should be put to death. It was also a privilege of the utmost consequence to a Roman citizen, to have none but the people for his judges.

Birth alone made a citizen, and entitled to all the privileges of burgesses; time could not acquire it, but the emperor could bestow it; and it was often given men and cities as a reward of some special merit or services. It is not improbable that the citizenship of St. Paul, mentioned in the book of Acts, was of this kind, some of his ancestors having obtained it for services they had done to the Roman commonwealth in the wars.

The Romans were anciently so particularly careful to preserve even their common citizens from any mixture of servile blood, that they prohibited all marriages between them and freed slaves, or their children. And it was decreed, as a special privilege and reward to one Hispala, of libertine condition, for her discovery of the impieties of the Bacchanalian mysteries, that a citizen might take her to wife without any disgrace and diminution of his rights. These distinctions, indeed, began to be disregarded towards the end of the republic, with respect to the ordinary citizens, but were kept up to the last with regard to the senate.

rials than oak boughs; because, says Plutarch, the oaken wreath being sacred to Jupiter, the great guardian of their city, they thought it the most proper ornament for him who had preserved the life of a citizen. Pliny, speaking of the honor and privileges conferred on those who had merited this crown, says, 'they who had once obtained it, might wear it always. When they appeared at the public spectacles, the senate and people rose to do them honor, and they took their seats on these occasions among the senators. They were not only personally excused from all troublesome offices, but procured the same immunity for their father and grandfather by their father's side.' It is often used as a crest, in armorial bearing.

year.

In order to have a right to the title of citizen by birth at Athens, it was sufficient to be born of a father and mother who were both citizens; but the child of an Athenian, who married a foreign woman, CIVIL YEAR. That form of the year which was entitled only to the condition of his mother. each nation has adopted for computing their time This law was made by Pericles, and he executed it by. The civil year in Europe, and America, conwith so much rigor, that nearly five thousand per- sists of three hundred and sixty-five days for the sons excluded from the rank of citizens, were pub-common year, and three hundred and sixty-six licly sold at auction. At first, when it was neces- days for leap year, which happens every fourth sary to encourage the population of Attica, the title of citizen was bestowed on every person who came to settle in that country. When that necessity ceased, Solon granted it only to those who should bring with them their families, or to persons who, exiled for ever from their country, came thither in search of a secure asylum. At length it was permitted to those who should render services to the state. This honor was ardently sought even by sovereigns, as long as the Athenians rigorously observed the laws to prevent its being too easily obtained; afterwards it was held in less estimation.

CITRON. A species of the lemon, which is much cultivated in Persia and the warm climates of Europe.

CLAN. A term used in Scotland to denote a number of families of the same name, under a feudal chief, who protected them, and, in return for that protection, commanded their services as his followers, and led them to war, and on military excursions.

CLARIFICATION. Is the separation, by chemical means, of any liquid from substances suspended in it, and rendering it turbid. If a difference can be made between clarification and filtration, it is, that the latter is effected by mere mechanical means, but the former either by heat or by certain additions, the action of which may be considered as chiefly chemical. The liquors subCITRON WOOD. The wood of an American jected to clarification are almost without exception tree, called by the natives candle-wood; because, those animal or vegetable juices, in which the matbeing cut into splinters, it burns like a candle. The ter that renders them turbid is so nearly of the tree is frequent in the Leeward Islands, and grows same specific gravity with the liquor itself, that to a considerable size: the leaves are like those of mere rest will not effect a separation. In these too the bay tree, but of a finer green; the flower is the liquid is generally rendered thicker than usual sweet and much like those of the orange; the fruit by holding in solution much mucilage, which fursucceeding these is black, and of the size of a pep-ther entangles the turbid matter, and prevents it per-corn. It is of no known use in medicine; but is used in France and Germany by the turners, being a fine firm-grained wood, and taking a fine polish, and with age becoming of a very beautiful brown.

CITY. In England, a corporate town having a bishop's see, and a cathedral town. This distinction is not always observed in common discourse, for they say the town of Ely, which is a bishop's see, and the city of Westminster, which at present has In the United States the term is applied to any incorporated town, which has a mayor and aldermen. By geographical writers it is loosely applied to any large town.

no see.

from sinking. Hence it is that vinous fermentation has so powerful an effect as a clarifier, since this process always implies the destruction of a portion of saccharine mucilage, and the consequent production of a thin limpid spirit.

Coagulating substances are great clarifiers when mixed with any turbid liquor, the process of coagulation entangling with it all matters merely suspended and not dissolved, and carrying them either to the top in the form of a scum, or to the bottom in the form of a thick sediment, according to circumstances. Thus, to clarify muddy cider, the liquor is beaten up with a small quantity of fresh bullock's blood, and suffered to stand at rest for some hours, after which the liquor above is as clear as water, and almost as colorless, and at the bottom CIVICA CORONA. A crown given by the is a thick tough cake, consisting of the coagulated ancient Romans to any soldier who had saved the blood which has carried down with it all the opaque life of a citizen in an engagement. The civic matter suspended in the liquor. Albuminous and crown was reckoned more honorable than any gelatinous substances act in the same manner. The other crown, though composed of no better mate-effect of white of egg in this way is known to every

one. It should be first mixed with the turbid and blue. The most durable kind of bricks are liquor, without heat and by agitation. Afterwards, made of a YELLOW CLAY containing some iron, on applying less than a boiling heat, the albumen and a considerable portion of silex. of the egg coagulates, and carries up with it all the opaque particles, leaving the rest beautifully clear and limpid. Sometimes clarification takes place in a very unaccountable manner. Thus, it is well known, that a handful of marl or clay will clarify a large cistern of muddy water, and marl is also used with advantage in clarifying vinous liquors.

CLEF, or CLIFF, in Music. A mark set at the beginning of the lines of a song, which shows the tone or key in which the piece is to begin; or it is a letter marked on any line, which explains the rest. It is called clef, or key, because hereby we know the names of all the other lines, and consequently the quantity of every degree or interval: CLARINET. A wind instrument of the reed but because every note in the octave is also called kind about two feet long with a mouth piece, the a key, this letter marked is, for distinction-sake, scale of which, though it includes every semitone denominated the signed clef; and by this key is within its extremes, is virtually defective. It how-meant the principal note of a song, in which the ever commands in the hands of a good performer melody closes. more than three octaves. Some additional keys have been lately added to this instrument. It is commonly made of box.

CLERK. In the way of trade and business, is one who exercises any function with the pen. The Clergy, in the early ages, engrossed almost every kind of learning to themselves; and they were peculiarly remarkable for their proficiency in the study of the law. The judges, therefore, were usually created out of the sacred order; and all the inferior officers were supplied by lower clergy, which has occasioned their successors to be denominated clerks to this day.

CLIENT, or CLIENS. Among the Romans, a citizen that put himself under the protection of some great man, who, in that relation, was called his patron patronus.

CLASS, in Botany. Denotes the primary division of plants into large groups, each of which is to be subdivided, by a regular downward progression, in orders, or sections as they are called by Tournefort, genera, and species, with occasional intermediate subdivisions, all subordinate to the division which stands immediately above them. So that the classes have been compared to the first layer of a truncated pyramid, which increases gradually as it receives the orders, genera, and occasional intermediate subdivisions, till at length it terminates in an immense base, consisting entirely of species. According to the definition of Linnæus, a class is The patron assisted his client with his protection, founded on the agreement of the several genera interest, and estate, advised him in points of law, with each other, in the parts of fructification, ac-managed his suits, took care of him as of his own cording to the principles of nature and art. It is child, and to the utmost of his power, contributed observed, that, in the formation of classes, they to secure his peace and happiness: and the client should not be very numerous, and that their bound- gave his vote for his patron, when he sought any aries should be strongly and distinctly marked. office for himself, or his friends. Clients owed respect to their patrons, as these reciprocally owed them their protection.

CLASSICAL. A term applied to authors of standard authority, particularly the writers among the Greeks and the Romans, whose works are comprehended under the name of the Classics.

CLAVICHORD, in Music. A keyed instrument, long known, and still much used in Germany. Its form is that of a small piano forte; it has no quills, jacks, or hammers. The strings are all muffled with slips of red cloth; and the tone is produced by little brass wedges, placed at the ends of the keys, which when put down, press against the middle of the strings, acting as a bridge to each. When this instrument is touched by a great master, it is capable of great expression, though of a melancholy kind, something like the effect of the old close-shake on the violin.

CLAY. There is a great variety of earths or clays denominated after the particular use to which they are applied, as PORCELAIN CLAY, which consists of alumina and silex, with a little mica, and is found in Cornwall, Saxony, Japan, and China. It is of a reddish white, is supposed to be formed from the decomposition of felspar, and is used in the manufacture of porcelain or china. PIPE CLAY is of a grayish or yellowish white. POTTERS' CLAY is found of various shades of yellow, gray, green,

CLIENT is now used for a party in a law-suit, who has turned over his cause into the hands of a counsellor, or solicitor, and who puts himself under their protection and defence. Clients are so called from their resemblance to those above-mentioned, who were dependent upon the ancient Roman orators.

CLIMATES. A critical examination of the causes which produce the temperatures of different climates, convinces us of the impossibility of any perfect classification. It is by considering the principal combinations of the properties which characterize climates, that we can classify them in a general manner. Heat and cold may be accompanied with humidity and dryness; from thence there results four principal climates.

We have first the hot and dry climate. Such is, in an extreme degree, that of the deserts of Sahara and of Arabia. The earth beneath is scorching, the sky above is on fire; even the brackish water is scarce and valuable as gold; plants languish for want of nutriment; the men and animals are strong and brawny, but few in number; olive complexions and bilious temperaments prevail among the natives of these countries. Their ferocious and sanguinary dispositions correspond to the character under

which Nature has appeared in those dreary and in- | comes at Madrid or at Marseilles, a temperature hospitable regions. very suitable to man. The baneful effects of huThe hot and humid climate prevails in Bengal, in mid heat, are, in like manner weakened, as we Mesopotamia, in the coasts of Żanguebar, Senegam-recede from the equator. On the other hand, we bia, Guayana, and Panama; these countries enjoy find the cold, dry or damp, more and more supthe verdure of perpetual Spring, and furnish the portable as we advance from the pole towards the most gigantic productions of the vegetable king- tropics. For example, at Bergen in Norway, and dom; but there also reptiles, of unwieldy length, at Brest in France, there is always the same constiwallow in the mud of marshes, steaming with pes-tution of winter rendered variable and humid from tilence; there man, robust in his frame of body, the vicinity of an ocean which never freezes. But propagates with rapidity, but his moral character how great is the difference in the intensity of the is sunk almost as low as that of brutes. The cold.

The torrid zone experiences only two seasons,

deep swarthy skin, and the phlegmatic tempera- These observations upon the true acceptation of ment, belong peculiarly to these countries. The the word climate, naturally lead us to take a genecold and dry climate supports a hardy, though cer-ral view of the different temperatures of the five tainly not a profuse vegetation; the waters are gen- zones, into which we are accustomed to divide the erally pure but hard; animals and men, respiring globe. more oxygen, are strong, active, and healthy; the moral and the physical part are in a state of equilib- | the one dry, the other rainy. The former is looked rium. They propagate slowly but with regularity; upon as the summer, the latter as the winter of the sanguine temperament and the white skin are these climates; but they are in direct opposition to characteristic of this climate, which comprehends the celestial winter and summer, for the rain always the greatest part of Europe and of Asia. accompaines the sun, so that, when that luminary The cold and humid climate in its extreme, such is in the northern signs, the countries to the north as is experienced in Siberia, and to the north of of the line have their rainy season. It appears Canada, envelopes the atmosphere with unwhole- that the presence of the sun in the zenith of a counsome fogs, and reduces vegetation to a few cheer-try, continually heats and rarefies its atmosphere. less, stunted shrubs, and to creeping moss. The The equilibrium is every moment subverted, the animals are covered with a thick fur, under which cold air of countries nearer the poles is incessantly they remain torpid one-half of the year. Man him- attracted, it condenses the vapors suspended in self, tall, but weak and sluggish, thinks only of de- the atmosphere, and thus occasions almost continual fending his physical existence against the unkind- rains. The countries of the torrid zone where no ness of Nature. The red copper-colored skin, and vapors rise into the air, are never visited by the the melancholic temperament, seem to be the native rainy season. growth of such a climate. By unfolding in this manner, the views of the celebrated philosopher Kant, our design has been only to exhibit a sketch of the combination of extreme temperatures and their most probable effects. We admit, that the four principal climates are, perhaps, nowhere to be found without some modifications, which alter their nature. These modifications are of two kinds; the one kind arises from a succession of two differ- The heat is almost the same within 10 or 15 deent climates in the same region; the other is owing grees of the equinoctial line; but towards the troto the more or less elevated degree of any of the pics, we feel a difference between the temperature four qualities which constitute climate. It is these which prevails at the moment the sun is in the modifications which, in opposition to the system of zenith, and that which obtains, when, in the oppoHippocrates, can entitle any climate whatever to site solstice, the solar rays falling under an angle the appellation of temperate, since the true sense of of more than forty-seven degrees. We may therethis term denotes an atmospherical constitution in fore, with Polybius, divide the torrid zone into three which the hot, the dry, and the humid, are equally others. The equatorial zone, properly so called, is moderated by each other. Thus, in Egypt, the temperate, compared with the zone of the tropic succession of humid heat, during an inundation, of Cancer, composed of the hottest and least haband of dry heat for the remainder of the year, tem-itable regions of the earth.

Local circumstances, particularly high chains of mountains, which arrest or alter the course of the monsoons and the winds, exercise such influence over the physical seasons of the torrid zone, that frequently an interval of not more than several leagues separates summer from winter. In other places, there are two dry seasons, which are distinguished by the name of great and little.

pers a climate, which, without either alternative, The greatest natural heat ever observed, which would be insupportable. Thus, the Dutch see with is thirty-five degrees of Reaumur, (111° Fahr.) has pleasure the dry cold succeed the humid cold, which, of itself, would render their country extremely insalubrious. At other times, the succession taking place too rapidly, or the two temperatures being too remote the one from the other, the climate is ren- Most of the ancients, disregarding the observadered more disagreeable than if one uniform tem- tion of Polybius, conceived that the heat continued perature continued. It is thus that the inhabitants to increase from the tropic towards the equator. of Astrachan, and of some other towns, feel in sum- Hence they concluded that the middle of the zone mer the heat of Africa, and in winter the cold of was uninhabitable. It is now ascertained that Siberia. These atmospherical constitutions are many circumstances combine to establish even also modified by the solar climates; thus, the dry there a temperature that is supportable. The heat which renders Sahara almost inaccessible, be-clouds; the great rains; the nights naturally very

been at Bagdad, at thirty-three degrees of latitude. The zone of the tropic of Capricorn contains but little land, but it appears to experience momentary heats of extreme intensity.

cool, their duration being equal to that of the days; | a strong evaporation; the vast expanse of the sea; the proximity of very high mountains, covered with perpetual snow; the trade winds, and the periodical inundations, equally contribute to diminish the heat. This is the reason why, in the torrid zone, we meet with all kinds of climates. The plains are burnt up by the heat of the sun. All the eastern coasts of the great continents, fanned by the trade winds, enjoy a mild temperature. The elevated districts are even cold; the valley of Quito is always green; and perhaps the interior of Africa contains more than one region which Nature has gifted with the same privilege.

Nothing equals the majestic beauty of the summer, in the torrid zone.

The sun rises vertically, it traverses in an instant the burning clouds of the east, and fills the heavens with a light, whose effulgent splendor is unobscured by a single shade. The moon shines here with a more brilliant lustre, Venus blazes with purer and more vivid rays, and the milky way glitters with augmented brightness. To this magnificence of the heavens, we must add the serenity of the air, the smoothness of the waves, the luxuriance of vegetation, the gigantic forms of plants and animals, all nature more grand, more animated, and yet less inconstant and less changeable.

Beyond the 60th degree, and as far as the 78th, (which appears to be the limit of the habitable earth in the northern hemisphere,) only two seasons are generally known; a long and rigorous winter, suc ceeded often suddenly by insupportable heats. The power of the solar beams, though feeble, from the obliquity of their direction, accumulates during the days, which are extremely long, and produces effects which might be expected only in the torrid zone. There have been examples of forests having been set on fire, and of the pitch melting on the sides of ships. In winter, on the contrary, brandy has been frozen in heated rooms; a crust of ice has covered even the sheets of the bed; the earth has been found frozen to the depth of 100 feet; and mercury, congealed in the thermometer, leaves the degree of cold indeterminate. I speak here of extreme cases, and of the zone in general. For, in some places, a southern exposure, and the neighborhood of the ocean, soften the climate to an almost incredible degree. Bergen, in Norway, and the whole of the adjoining coast, between 60 and 62 degrees of latitude, has a very rainy winter, but seldom snow or frost; that season of the year is there less rigorous, and requires less fuel than at Cracoria, or Prague, or Vienna, in Austria, between the 48th and 50th degrees of latitude. The frigid zone enjoys an atmospheric calm, which is unknown in temperate regions; it has no storms, no hail, scarcely a tempest; the splendors of the aurora borealis, reflected by the snow, dispel the darkness of the polar night. The days, for several months, though of a monotonous magnificence, astonishingly accelerate the growth of vegetation. In three days, or rather three times twenty-four hours, the snow is melted, and the flowers begin to blow.

The temperate zones, on the other hand, are indemnified by the mild and varied charms of spring and autumn, by the moderate heat of summer, and the salutary rigors of winter. This succession of four seasons is not known beyond the tropic, nor towards the poles. Even that part of the northern temperate zone, which lies between the tropic and 35th degree of latitude, in many places resembles the torrid zone. Until we come towards the 40th degree, the frost in the plains is neither intense nor The succession of physical zones, is not equal in of long duration; it is equally unusual to see snow the two hemispheres. When speaking of the ice fall there, though unquestionably it is not true, that of the sea, we observed, that, in the arctic seas, we when a fall of snow does take place, the ladies of scarcely meet with the large floating masses before Rome or of Naples leave the theatre to enjoy so we arrive at the 70th degree, nor the stationary fields, extraordinary a spectacle, or that the academicians until towards the 75th or 80th degrees of latitude; run out, with their glasses in their hands, to exam-while, in the antarctic seas, both occur at from 50 ine this singular phenomenon. Elevated countries to 60 degrees of southern latitude. In the island feel all the rigor of winter, and the trees, even in of Terra del Fuego, in that of Sandwich, and in the plains, lose their foliage, and remain stripped several others situated towards the 54th and 59th of verdure during the months of November and degrees of south latitude, the mountains, even in December. the southern summer, remain covered with snow quite to the shores of the sea.

It is from the 40th to the 60th degree, that the succession of the four seasons is most regular and most perceptible, without however endangering the health of man. And it is within these latitudes, that we must look for the nations that are most distinguished for knowledge and civilisation, and those who display the greatest courage by sea and by land. It would appear, that in countries where there is no summer, the inhabitants are destitute of genius, or at least of intelligence and taste, while in those regions where there is no winter, true valor, constancy, and loyalty, as well as other civil and military virtues, are almost unknown. But, let us remember, that it is man himself, who has in a great measure created these salubrious climates; -France, Germany, and England, not more than twenty ages ago, resembled Canada, and Chinese Tartary, countries situated at a mean distance between the equator and the pole.

This diminution of heat appears to cease all at once, between the 30th and 40th degrees of latitude; for hot winds arise from the interior of New Holland, whilst the mountains of Van Dieman's Land remain covered with perpetual snow; thus there is felt in these latitudes, the most sudden transition from a suffocating heat to a very sensible cold.

CLIMAX.

word or expression which ends the first member In rhetoric, a figure wherein the of a period begins the second, and so on; so that every member will make a distinct sentence, taking its rise from the next foregoing, till the argument and period be beautifully finished.

CLOCK. A machine, moving by a pendulum, serving to measure time, and to show the hours by striking on a bell. Al-Raschied, an Arabian ambassador, brought into France, in the year 802, a