who are here very numerous, and would be ready to punish any tranf greffion of their ungallant laws with arbitrary fines. But nature and native manners will often baffle the efforts even of tyranny. In all their customs these manly ladies feem to have changed fexes with the men.The woman rides aftride-the man fits fideways upon the horfe.-Nay I have been affured that the hufband's diftinguishing appellation is his wife's family name. The women have town and country houses, in the management of which the hufband never dares interfere. Their gardens, their fervants, are all their own and the husband, from every circumftance of his behaviour, appears to be no other than his wife's first domeftic, perpetually bound to her fervice, and flave to her caprice. Hence it is that a tradition obtains in the country, that this ifland was formerly inhabited by Amazons, a tradition however founded upon no ancient history that I know of. Sappho indeed, the moft renowned female that this ifland has ver produced, is faid to have had manly inclinations, in which, as Lucian informs us, she did but conform with the fingular manners of her countrywomen; but I do not find that the mode in which the chofe to fhew thefe inclinations is imitated by the prefent female inhabitants, who feem perfectly content with the dear prerogative of abfolute fway, without endeavouring, in any other particular, to change the course of nature; yet will this circumftance ferve to fhew that the women of Lefbus had always fomething peculiar, and even peculiarly mafculine, in their manners and propenfi ties. But be this as it may, it is certain that no country whatfoever can afford a more perfect idea of an Amazonian commonwealth, or better ferve to render probable thofe ancient relations which our manners would induce us to esteem incredible, than

this island of Metelin. Thefe lordlý. ladies are, for the most part, very handfome in fpite of their drefs, which is fingular and disadvantageous. Down to the girdle, which, as in the old Grecian garb, is raised far-above what we ufually call the wait, they wear: nothing but a fhift of thin and tranfparent gauze, red, green, or brown, through which every thing is visible, their breafts only excepted, which they cover with a fort of handkerchief; and this, as we are informed, the Turks have obliged them to wear, while they look upon it as an incumbrance, and as no inconfiderable portion of Turkish tyranny. Long fleeves of the fame thin material perfectly fhew their arms even to the shoulder.. Their principal ornaments are chains of pearl, to which they hang fmall piecesof gold coin. Their eyes are large and fine, and the nofe, which we termGrecian, ufually prevails among them, as it does indeed among the women: of all thefe iflands. Their complexions are naturally fine, but they spoil them by paint, of which they make a bundant ufe, and they' disfigure their pretty faces by fhaving the hinder part of the eyebrow, and replacing it with a strait line of hair, neatly applied: with fome fort of gum, the brow being thus continued in a strait and narrow line, till it joins the hair on each fide of their face. They are well made, of the middle fize, and, for the most part, plump; but they are diftinguished by nothing so much and fo univerfally as by a haughty, disdainful, and fupercilious air, with which they feem to look down upon all mankind as creatures of an inferiot nature, born for their fervice, and doomed to be their flaves; neither does this peculiarity of countenance in any degree diminish their natural beauty, but ra ther adds to it that fort of bewitching attraction, which the French call pi quant.

Reflections

491

S. 1. THE impoffibility of the exiftence of commerce upon the fuppofition of an equal divifion of lands, where every man would poffefs only what is necessary for his own fupport.

If the land was divided among all the inhabitants of a country, fo that each of them poffeffed precifely the quantity neceffary for his fupport, and nothing more, it is evident that all of them being equal, no one would work for another, neither would any of them poffefs wherewith to pay another for his labour, for each perfon having only fuch a quantity of land as was neceflary to produce a fubfiftence, would confume all he fhould gather, and would not have any thing to give in exchange for the labour of others.

§. 2. The above hypothefis neither bas nor can exift, the diverfity of foils and multiplicity of wants compel an exchange of the productions of the earth, against other productions.

This hypothefis never can have exifted, because the earth has been cultivated before it has been divided; the cultivation itself having been the only motive for a divifion, and for that law which fecures to every one his proper ty. For the firft perfons who have employed themielyes in cultivation have probably worked as much land as their ftrength would permit, and confequently more than was neceflary for their own nourishment.

If this ftate could have exifted, it could not poffibly be durable, each one gathering from his field only a fubfiitence, and not having wherewith to pay others for their labour, would

3

not be enabled to fupply his other wants of lodging, cloathing, &c. &c. except by the labour of his hands, which would be nearly impoffible, as every foil would not produce invari ably the fame.

The man whofe land was only fit to produce grain, and would neither bring forth cotton nor flax, would want linen to cloath him. Another would have ground proper for cotton, which would not yield grain. One would want fuel for his fire, and another be deftitute of corn to fupport him. Experience would foon teach every one what species of productions his land was best adapted to, and he would confine himself to the cultivation of it, in order to procure himself thofe things he stood in need of, by an exchange with his neighbours, who, having on their part acquired the fame experience, would have cultivat ed thofe productions which were best fuited to their land, and would have abandoned the cultivation of any other.

§. 3. The productions of the earth require long and difficult preparations, before they are made fit to fupply the wants of men.

The productions which the earth fupplies to fatisfy the wants of man, will not, for the most part, administer to thofe wants, in the ftate nature affords them; it is neceffary they should undergo different operations, and be prepared by art. Wheat must be converted into flour, then into bread hides must be dreffed or tanned; wool and cotton must be fpun; filk must be taken from the cod; hemp and flax

;

muft

must be foaked, peeled, fpun, and wove into different textures; then cut and fewed together again to make garments, &c. If the fame man who cultivates on his own land thefe different articles, and who raifes them to fupply his wants, was obliged to perform all the intermediate operations himself, it is certain he would fucceed very badly. The greater part of thefe preparations require care, attention, and a long experience; all which are only to be acquired by progrefive labour, and that on a great quantity of materials. Let us refer, for example, to the preparation of hides: what labourer can purfus all the particular things neceffary to thofe operations, which continue feveral months, fome times feveral years? If he is able to do it, can he do it with a fiagle hide? What a lofs of time, of room, and of materials, which might be emploved, either at the fame time or fucceffively, to tan a large quantity of fkins! But fhould he even fucceed in tanning a single skin, he wants one pair of fhoes; what will he do with the remainder? Will he kill an ox to make this pair of (hoes? Will he cut down a tree to make a pair of wooden fhoes? We may fay the fame thing of every other want of every other man, who, if he was reduced to his field, and the labour of his own hands, would waite much time, take much trouble, be very badly equipped in every refpect, and would alfo cultivate his lands very ill. §. 4. The neceffity of these prepara. tions, bring on the exchange of productions for labour.

The fame motive which has eftablished the exchange of commodity for commodity, between the cultivators of lands of different natures, has alfo ne ceffarily brought on the exchange of commodities for labour, between the cultivators and another portion of fociety, who shall have preferred the occupation of preparing and completing the productions of the earth, to the cultivation of it. Every one profits

by this arrangement, for every one at taching himlelf to a peculiar fpecies of labour, fucceeds much better therein. The hufbandman draws from his field the greatest quantity it is able to produce, and procures to himself, with greater facility, all the other objects of his wants, by an exchange of his fuperflux, than he could have done by his own labour. The shoemaker, by making fhoes for the hufbandman; fecures to himself a portion of the haryet of the latter. Every workman labours for the wants of the workmen of every other trade, who, on their fide, toil alfo for him.

§. 5. Pre-eminence of the husbandman who produces, over the artificer who prepares. The bufbandman is the, first mover in the circulation of labour; it is he who caufes the earth to produce the wages of every artificer.

It must, however, be observed, that the husbandman, furnishing every one with the most important and the mott confiderable objects of their confumption (I mean their food, and the materials of almoft all manufactures) has the advantage of a greater degree of independence. His labour, among the different fpecies of labour, appropriated to the different members of fociety, fupports the fame pre-eminence and priority; as the procuring his food did among the different works he was obliged, in his folitary ftate, to employ himfelf in, to minifter to his wants of every fort. This is not a pre-eminence of honour or of dignity, but of phyfical neceffity. The hufbandman can, generally fpeaking, fubfift without the labour of other workmen ; but no other workman can labour, if the hufbandman does not providé him wherewith to exist. It is this circulation, which, by a reciprocal exchange of wants, renders mankind neceffary to each other, and which forms the bond of fociety: it is then the labour of the hufbandman which gives the first movement. What his induftry caufes the earth to produce

beyond

beyond his perfonal wants, is the only fund for the falaries which all the of ther members of fociety receive, in re. compence for their toil. The latter, by availing themselves of the produce of this exchange, to purchase in their turn the commodities of the husbandman, only return to him precifely what they have received. There is here a very effential difference betwe thefe two fpecies of labours, on which it is neceffary to reflect, and to be well affured of the ground they ftand on, before we trust to the innumerable confequences which flow from them.

ween

§. 6. The falary of the workman is limited by the competition among thofe who work for their fubfiftence. He only gains a livelihood.

The mere workman, who depends only on his hands and his induftry, has nothing but fuch part of his labour as he is able to difpofe of. He felis at a cheaper or a dearer price; but this high or low price does not depend on himfelf alone; it refults from the agreement he has made with the person who employs him. The latter pays him as little as he can help; as he has the choice from among a great number of workmen, he prefers the perfon who works cheap eft. The workmen are therefore o liged to lower their price in oppofition to each other. In every fpecies of labour it muft, and, in effect, it does happen, that the wages of the work man are confined merely to what is neceffary to procure hini a fubfiftence. §. 8. The bufbandman is the only one whofe industry produces more than the wages of his labour. He, therefore, is the only fource of all riches.

The fituation of the hufbandman

is materially different. The foil, independent of any other man, or of any agreement, pays him immediately the price of his toil. Nature does not bargain with him, or compel him to content himself with what is abiolutely neceffary. What the grants is neither limited to his wants, nor to a

conditional valuation of the price of his day's work. It is a phyfical.confequence of the fertility of the foil, and of juftice, rather than of the difficulty of the means, which he has employed to render it fruitful. As foọn as the labour of the husbandman produces more than fufficient for his neceffities, he can, with the excess which nature affords him of pure free-will, beyond the wages of his toils, purchafe the labour of other members of fociety. The latter, in felling to him, only procures a livelihood; but the hufbandman, befides his fubfiftence, collects an independent and difpofable wealth, which he has not purchased, but can fell. He is, therefore, the only fource of all those riches which, by their circulation, animate the labours of fociety; becaufe he is the only one whofe labour produces more than the wages of his toil.

§. 8. First divifion of fociety inte two claffes, the one productive, or the cultivators, the other ftipendiary, or the artificers.

Here then is the whole fociety divided, by a necetlity founded on the nature of things, into two claffes, both induftrious, of which the one, by its labour, produces, or rather draws from the earth, riches continually renewing, which fupply the whole fociety with fubfiftence, and with materials for all its wants. The other, employed in giving the faid materials fuch preparations and forms as render them proper for the ufe of man, fells to the firit perfon his labour, and receives in return a fubfiftence. firft may be called the productive, the latter the ftipendiary clafs.

The

§. 9. In the first ages of fociety, the proprietors could not be dftinguished from the cultivators.

Hitherto we have not diftinguifhei the hufbandman from the proprietor of the land; and in the first origin they were not in fact diftinguished. It is by the labour of those who have firft cultivated the fields, and who

have enclosed them, to fecure their harvest, that all land has ceased to be common to all, and that a property in the foil has been established. Until focieties have been established, and until the public ftrength, or the laws, becoming fuperior to the force of individuals, has been able to guarantee to every one the tranquil poffeffion of his property, against all invafion from without; the property in a field could only be fecured as it had been acquired, and by continuing to cultivate it; he could not have been affured of having his field cultivated by the help of another perfon; and that perfon taking all the trouble, could not eafily have comprehended that the whole harvest did not belong to him. On the other hand, in this early age, when every industrious man would find as much land as he wanted, he would not be tempted to labour for another. It neceffarily follows, that every proprietor muft cultivate his own field or 'abandon it.

§ 10. Progress of fociety: all lands come to have an owner.

But the land begins to people, and to be cleared more and more. The beft lands are in procefs of time fully occupied. There remains only for thofe who come lat, nothing but barren land, rejected by the firit occupant but a laft, every fpot has found a mafter; and those who cannot gain a property therein, have no other refource but to exchange the labour of their hands in fome of the employments of the ftipendiary claf, for the excefs of commodities poffeffed by the cultivating proprietor.

11. The proprietors begin to be abe to ease themselves of the labour of cultivation, by the help of hired culti pators.

Mean time, fince the earth produces to the proprietor who cultivates it, not a fubfiflence only; not only wherewith to procure himfelf by way of exchange, what he otherwife wants, but alfo a confiderable fuperfluity; he

is enabled, with this fuperfluity, to pay other men to cultivate his land. And among thofe who live by wages, as many are content to labour in this employment as in any other. The proprietor, therefore, might then be ealed of the labour of culture, and he foon was fo.

12. Inequality in the divifion of property: caufes which render that inevitable.

The original proprietors would (as I have already mentioned) occupy as much land as their ftrength would permit them to cultivate with their fa milies. A man of greater ftrength, more laborious, more attentive about the future, would occupy more than a man of a contrary character. He, whofe family is the most numerous having greater wants and more hands, extends his poffeffions furtheft; this is the firft caufe of inequality.-Every piece of ground is not equally fertile; two men with the fame extent of land, may reap a very different harvelt; this is a fecond fource of inequality.Property in defcending from fathers to their children, divides into greater or lefs portions, acording as the defcendants are more or lefs numerous. As one generation fucceeds another, fometimes the inheritances again fub divide, and fometimes re-unite again by the extinction of fome of the branches; this is a third fource of inequality. The difference of knowledge, of activity, and, above all, the economy of fome, contrafted with the indolence, inaction, and diffipation of others, is a fourth principle of inequality, and the most powerful of all; the negligent and inattentive proprie tor, who cultivates badly, who in a fruitful year confumes in frivolous things the whole of his fuperfluity, finds hirnfelf reduced on the leaft acci dent to requeft affistance from his more provident neighbour, and to live by borrowing. It by any new accident, or by a continuation of his negligence, he finds himself not in a condition to

repay