He wrote rather slowly, and his first sketches were often rather slight and imperfect, like the rude chalking of a masterly picture. His chief effort and greatest pleasure was, in their revisal and correction, and there were no limits to the improvement which resulted from this application. It was not the style merely, or indeed chiefly, that gained by it. The whole reasoning, and sentiment, and illustration, were enlarged and new modelled in the course of it, and a naked outline became gradually informed with life, colour, and expression. It was not at all like the common finishing and polishing to which careful authors generally subject the first drafts of their compositions, nor even like the fastidious and tentative alterations with which some more anxious writers essay their choicest passages. It was, in fact, the great filling in of the picture, the working-up of the figured weft on the naked and meagre woof, that had been stretched to receive it; and the singular thing in this case was, not only that he left this most material part of his work to be performed after the whole outline had been finished, but that he could proceed with it to an indefinite extent."

Much more was added to this clause; but we forbear from making any farther addition to a sentiment thus filled by the author's

hand.

BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIR OF JAMES WATT, ESQ. James Watt, esq. was born at Greenock in the year 1736. After

finishing his grammatical studies, in which he laid in a stock of useful elementary knowledge, he was apprenticed to what is called in the North an instrument-maker, whose business consists in making and repairing the various machines and articles used in different professions. After serving three years he removed to London, and worked some time with a mathematical instrument-maker; but having contracted a complaint by sitting in winter at the door of the work-shop, he removed to his native country, where he set up for himself. Whilst he was thus employed, the professor of natural philosophy in the University of Glasgow engaged him in repairing the old model of a steam-engine, which through length of time had grown out of use. Watt was much struck with the contrivance, but he soon perceived defects in it which prevented it from becoming of more general advantage. From that time he devoted himself to the improvement of this machine, particularly with regard to the saving of heat in the production and condensation of steam. By repeated observations he found, that near four times the quantity of steam was wasted in comparison of that which actually worked the machine. He therefore endeavoured to diminish this waste, and at length completely succeeded.

This was about the year 1763; at which period he married a lady of Glasgow, by whom he had two children. About this time he was joined by Dr. Roebuck, at gentleman of science and property; but their means were not adequate

adequate to their objects. In this situation, Mr. Boulton fortunately becoming acquainted with Mr. Watt, instantly made him an offer of partnership, which was accepted, Dr. Roebuck being reimbursed for what he had expended. Mr. Watt now removed with his family to Birmingham, where he was employed in the most extensive concerns; and for the sale • of his engines a patent was obtained, with an act of parliament to prolong its duration. He was also the author of many other inventions, particularly of the copying machine, by the help of which, what has taken a person several hours to write, may be transcribed in a few seconds. Soon after his settlement in Birmingham, having lost his wife, he married Miss M'Gregor, of Glasgow.

Mr. Watt was elected a fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh in 1784; of the Royal Society of London in 1785; and a member of the Batavian Society in 1787. In 1806 the honorary degree of Doctor of Laws was conferred upon him by the spontaneous vote of the University of Glasgow; and in 1808 he was elected a member of the National Institute of France.

This truly-great man, by his death has deprived our country of one of its most illustrious ornaments. He may justly be placed at the very head of those philosophers who have improved the condition of mankind by the application of science to the practical purposes of life. His steam

engine is probably the most perfect production of physical and mechanical skill which the world has yet seen, and certainly far transcends every similar invention. So great was the active power of his mind, that he not only embraced the whole compass of science, but was deeply learned in many departments of literature; and such was the felicity of his memory, that it retained, without effort, all that was confided to it. His manners were marked with the simplicity which generally characterizes exalted merit, and were perfectly free from parade and affectation; and though he could not be unconscious of the eminent rank he held among men of science, yet his character was not debased by the slightest taint of vanity or pride. He had for many years retired from business; but his mind continued actively employed on scientific improvements, among which was, an apparatus for the medical employment of factitious airs.

Having at length attained the age of 84 years, his life was terminated by an easy and tranquil death, on the 25th of August, at his house at Heathfield.

His remains were interred at Handsworth, in Warwickshire. The funeral, according to his own wishes, was a private one; but a numerous assemblage of his friends attended his remains to the grave; among whom were several gentlemen, eminent in science and literature, from distant parts of the kingdom.

VOL. LXI.

2 H

STATISTICS

(From Hallam's Europe.)

THE geographical position of Europe naturally divides its maritime commerce into two principal regions; one comprehending those countries which border on the Baltic, the German and the Atlantic oceans; another, those situated around the Mediterranean sea. During the four centuries which preceded the discovery of America, and especially the two former of them, this separation was more remarkable than at present, inasmuch as their intercourse, either by land or sea, was extremely limited. To the first region belonged the Netherlands, the coasts of France, Germany, and Scandinavia, and the maritime districts of England. In the second we may class the provinces of Valencia and Catalonia, those of Provence and Languedoc, and the whole of Italy.

1. The former, or northern division, was first animated by the woollen manufacture of Flanders. It is not easy either to discover the early beginnings of this, or to account for its rapid advancement. The fertility of that province and its facilities of interior navigation were doubtless necessary causes; but there must have been some temporary encouragement from the personal character of its sovereigns, or

other accidental circumstances. Several testimonies to the flourishing condition of Flemish manufactures occur in the twelfth century, and some might perhaps be found even earlier. A writer of the thirteenth asserts that all the world was clothed from English wool wrought in Flanders. This indeed is an exaggerated vaunt; but the Flemish stuffs were probably sold wherever the sea or a navigable river permitted them to be carried. Cologne was the chief trading city upon the Rhine; and its merchants, who had been considerable even under the emperor Henry 4th; established a factory at London in 1220. The woollen manufacture, notwithstanding frequent wars and the impolitic regulations of magistrates, continued to flourish in the Netherlands (for Brabant and Hainault shared it in some degree with Flanders), until England became not only capable of supplying her own demand, but a rival in all the marts of Europe. All Christian kingdoms, and even the Turks themselves, says an historian of the sixteenth century, lamented the desperate war between the Flemish cities and their count Louis, that broke out in 1380. For at that time Flanders was a market for the traders of all the world. Merchants from seventeen kingdoms had their set

tled

tled domiciles at Bruges, besides strangers from almost unknown countries who repaired thither. During this war, and on all other occasions, the weavers both of Ghent and Bruges distinguished themselves by a democratical spirit, the consequence no doubt of their numbers and prosperity. Ghent was one of the largest cities in Europe, and in the opinion of many the best situated. But Bruges, though in circuit but half the former, was more splendid in its buildings, and the seat of far more trade; being the great staple both for Mediterranean and northern merchandize. Antwerp, which early in the sixteenth century drew away a large part of this commerce from Bruges, was not considerable in the preceding ages; nor were the towns of Zealand and Holland much noted except for their fisheries, though those provinces acquired in the fifteenth century some share of the woollen manufacture.

For the two first centuries after the conquest, our English towns, as has been observed in a different place, made some forward steps towards improvement, though still very inferior to those of the continent. Their commerce was almost confined to the exportation of wool, the great staple commodity of England, upon which, more than any other, in its raw or manufactured state, our wealth has been founded. A woollen manufacture, however, indisputably existed under Henry 2nd; it is noticed in regulations of Richard 1st; and by the importation of woad under John, it may be inferred to have still flourished. The disturbances of the

next reign, perhaps, or the rapid elevation of the Flemish towns, retarded its growth; though a remarkable law was passed by the Oxford parliament in 1261, prohibiting the export of wool, and the importation of cloth. This, while it

shows the deference paid by the discontented barons who predominated in that parliament, to their confederates the burghers, was evidently too premature to be enforced. We may infer from it, however, that cloths were made at home, though not sufficiently for the people's consumption.

Prohibitions of the same nature, though with a different object, were frequently imposed on the trade between England and Flanders by Edward I, and his son. As their political connexions fluctuated, these princes gave full liberty and settlement to the Flemish merchants, or banished them at once from the country. Nothing could be more injurious to England than this arbitrary vacillation, which, I think, proves Edward 1st to have been a less wise and enlightened sovereign than he has been esteemed. The Flemings were in every respect our natural allies; but besides those connexions with France, the constant enemy of Flanders, into which both the Edwards occasionally fell, a mutual aliena-. nation had been produced by the trade of the former people with Scotland, a trade too lucrative to be resigned at the king of England's request. An early instance of that conflicting selfishness of belligerents and neutrals, which was destined to aggravate the animosities and misfortunes of our own time!

A more prosperous æra began with Edward 3rd, the father, as he may almost be called, of English commerce, a title, not indeed more glorious, but by which he may perhaps claim more of our gratitude than as the hero of Crecy. In 1331, he took advantage of discontents among the manufacturers of Flanders, to invite them as settlers into his dominions. They brought the finer manufacture of woollen cloths, which had been unknown in England. The discontents alluded to resulted from the monopolizing spirit of their corporations, who oppressed all artisans without the pale of their community. The history of corporations brings home to our minds one cardinal truth, that political institutions have very frequently but a relative and temporary usefulness, and that what forwarded improvement during one part of its course, may prove to it in time a most pernicious obstacle. Corporations in England, we may be sure, wanted nothing of their usual character; and it cost Edward no little trouble to protect his colonists from their selfishness, and from the blind nationality of the vulgar. The emigration of Flemish weavers into England continued during this reign, and we find it mentioned, at intervals, for more than a century.

Commerce now became, next to liberty, the leading object of parliament. Far the greater part of our statutes from the accession of Edward 3rd, bear relation to this subject; not always well devised, or liberal, or consistent, but by no means worse in those respects than such as have been

enacted in subsequent ages. The occupation of a merchant became honourable; and notwithstanding the natural jealousy of the two classes, he was placed in some measure on a footing with landed proprietors. By the statute of apparel, in 37 Edw. 3rd, merchants and artificers who had five hundred pounds value in goods and chattels might use the same dress as squires of one hundred pounds a year. And those who were worth more than this, might dress like men of double that estate. Wool was still the principal article of export, and source of revenue. Subsidies granted by every parliament upon this article were, on account of the scarcity of money, commonly taken in kind. To prevent evasion of this duty seems to have been the principle of those multifarious regulations, which fix the staple, or market for wool, in certain towns, either in England, or, more commonly, on the continent. To these all wool was to be carried, and the tax was there collected. It is not easy, however, to comprehend the drift of all the provisions relating to the staple, many of which tend to benefit foreign at the expense of English merchants. By degrees, the exportation of woollen cloths increased so as to diminish that of the raw material, but the latter was not absolutely prohibited during the period under review; although some restrictions were imposed upon it by Edward 4th. For a much earlier statute, in the 11th of Edward 3rd, making the exportation of wool a capital felony, was in its terms provisional, until it should be other